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First Course Warriner

HOLT HOLT

Grammar • Usage • Mechanics • Sentences

Introductory Course First Course Second Course

Grammar • Usage • Mechanics • Sentences Third Course Fourth Course Fifth Course Sixth Course

First Course

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PART

Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics

Grammar 1 The Parts of a Sentence 2 Parts of Speech Overview: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective 3 Parts of Speech Overview: Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection 4 Complements 5 The Phrase 6 The Clause 7 Kinds of Sentence Structure

Usage 8 9 10 11 12

Agreement Using Verbs Correctly Using Pronouns Correctly Using Modifiers Correctly A Glossary of Usage

Mechanics 13 Capital Letters 14 Punctuation: End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, Colons 15 Punctuation: Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, Hyphens, Parentheses, Brackets, Dashes 16 Spelling 17 Correcting Common Errors

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Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics

CHAPTER

The Parts of a Sentence Subject and Predicate, Kinds of Sentences

Diagnostic Preview Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview.

A. Identifying Sentences Identify each of the following word groups as a sentence or a sentence fragment. If a word group is a sentence fragment, rewrite it to make a complete sentence. EXAMPLES

Answers will vary. Sample responses are given. 1. frag.—, we’ll brainstorm [1a] 2. sent. [1a] 3. sent. [1a] 4. frag.—I [1a] 5. sent. [1a] 6. frag.—This is the house [1a] 7. frag.—is [1a] 8. sent. [1a] 9. frag.—We enjoy [1a] 10. sent. [1a]

Chapter 1

1. Having forgotten their lunches. 1. sentence fragment—Having forgotten their lunches, the students bought sandwiches. 2. How strong the wind is! 2. sentence

1. After we visit the library and gather information for the research paper. 2. Are you ready for the big game next week? 3. Listen closely to our guest speaker. 4. Have written the first draft of my paper. 5. An excellent short story, “The Medicine Bag,” is in that book. 6. That we helped Habitat for Humanity to build. 7. Mrs. Chin, our math teacher this year. 8. Be prepared to give your speech tomorrow. 9. Fishing, skiing, and swimming in the lake. 10. What a good idea you have, Amy!

The Parts of a Sentence

EXAMPLE

GRAMMAR

B. Identifying Subjects and Predicates Write the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences. Then, underline the simple subject and the simple predicate. 1. A computer can be a wonderful tool for people with disabilities. 1. A computer; can be a wonderful tool for people with disabilities

11. Specially designed machines have been developed in the past several years. 12. Have you ever seen a talking computer? 13. It is used mainly by people with visual impairments. 14. Most computers display writing on a screen. 15. However, these special models can give information by voice. 16. Closed-captioned television is another interesting and fairly recent invention. 17. Subtitles appear on the television screens of many hearingimpaired viewers. 18. These viewers can read the subtitles and enjoy their favorite television shows. 19. With a teletypewriter (TTY), people can type messages over phone lines. 20. Many new inventions and devices make life easier.

11. [1b–e] 12. [1b–e] 13. [1b–e] 14. [1b–e] 15. [1b–e] 16. [1b–e] 17. [1b–e] 18. [1b–e, g] 19. [1b–e] 20. [1b–e, f]

C. Punctuating and Classifying Sentences Copy the last word of each of the following sentences, and then punctuate each sentence with the correct end mark. Classify each sentence as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. EXAMPLE

1. Flowers and insects depend on one another for life 1. life.—declarative

21. Have you ever watched a honeybee or a bumblebee in a garden? 22. The bee flies busily from one flower to another, drinking nectar. 23. Notice the yellow pollen that collects on the legs and body of the bee. 24. The bee carries pollen from flower to flower, helping the plants to make seeds . 25. What a remarkable insect the bee is!

21. int. [1j] 22. dec. [1h] 23. imp. [1i] 24. dec. [1h] 25. exc. [1k]

Diagnostic Preview

The Sentence GRAMMAR

Reference Note For information on the use of capital letters, see page 266. For information on end marks, see page 290. Reference Note

1a. A sentence is a word or word group that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete thought.

A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. EXAMPLES

She won a prize for her book. Why did you stop running?

For information on the understood subject, see page 19.

Wait! [The understood subject is you.]

Sentence or Sentence Fragment? STYLE

TIP

Sentence fragments are common and acceptable in informal situations. However, in formal writing, you should avoid using sentence fragments.

A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence but does not contain both a subject and a verb or does not express a complete thought. SENTENCE FRAGMENT SENTENCE SENTENCE FRAGMENT

COM P U T E R T I P

SENTENCE

Many grammar-checking software programs can help you identify sentence fragments. If you have access to such a program, use it to help you evaluate your writing.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

SENTENCE

Oral Practice Reference Note For information on revising sentence fragments, see pages 4 and 414.

Sailing around the world. [The word group lacks a subject.] They are sailing around the world. The hike through the Grand Canyon. [The word group lacks a verb.] The hike through the Grand Canyon was long and hard. After they pitched the tent. [The word group contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.] After they pitched the tent, they rested.

Identifying Sentences

Read each of the following word groups aloud. Then, say whether each word group is a sentence or a sentence fragment. If a word group is a sentence fragment, add words to make it a complete sentence. Answers will vary. Sample responses are given. EXAMPLES

1. During her vacation last summer. 1. sentence fragment—During her vacation last summer, she hiked in the mountains. 2. My friend Michelle visited Colorado. 2. sentence

Chapter 1

The Parts of a Sentence

Subject and Predicate

1 1. sent. a, b 2. frag.—She rafted 3. sent. 4. sent. 5. frag.—The river swirled 6. frag.—Dangerous boulders,/, were spotted 7. sent. 8. frag.—Her boat was full 9. sent. 10. frag.—That boat,/, was big and roomy

Sentences consist of two basic parts: subjects and predicates.

The Subject 1b. The subject tells whom or what the sentence is about. EXAMPLES

Nicholasa Mohr is a writer and an artist. The girls on the team were all good students. He shared his lunch with the boy on the other team. Swimming is good exercise.

Reference Note A compound noun, such as Nicholasa Mohr, is considered one noun. For information about compound nouns, see page 25.

To find the subject, ask who or what is doing something or whom or what is being talked about. The subject may come at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. EXAMPLES

The pitcher struck Felicia out. [Who struck Felicia out? The pitcher struck Felicia out.] After practicing for hours, Tim bowled five strikes. [Who bowled five strikes? Tim bowled five strikes.] How kind you are! [Who is kind? You are kind.] When will the afternoon train arrive? [What will arrive? The afternoon train will arrive.] Hiding in the tall grass was a baby rabbit. [What was hiding? A baby rabbit was hiding.] Subject and Predicate

GRAMMAR

1. Do you know what happened during Michelle’s boat trip? 2. Down the rapids on the Colorado River. 3. At first her boat drifted calmly through the Grand Canyon. 4. Then the river dropped suddenly. 5. And became foaming rapids full of dangerous boulders. 6. Many of which can break a boat. 7. Michelle’s boat was small. 8. With one guide and four passengers. 9. Some passengers prefer large inflatable boats with outboard motors. 10. Carrying eighteen people.

Exercise 1

Writing Subjects and Punctuating Sentences

GRAMMAR

Provide subjects to fill in the blanks in the following sentences. Use a different subject in each sentence. Answers will vary. EXAMPLE

1. is very heavy. 1. That box is very heavy.

Sample responses are given.

1. is an exciting game to play. 1. Soccer 2. works in the post office. 2. Jack 3. Luckily for me, was easy to repair. 3. this bike 4. Tied to the end of the rope was . 4. a calf 5. Did help you? 5. anyone 6. eventually became President of the United States. 6. He 7. Have always wanted to visit Peru? 7. the Millers 8. Luis, was the score? 8. what 9. Before the game, will meet in the gym. 9. Jo and Han 10. has always been one of my favorite books. 10. That 11. What a great basketball player is! 11. Amber 12. Has called you yet? 12. your mother 13. In the afternoon takes a nap. 13. my cat 14. is playing at the theater this weekend? 14. What 15. When did start making that sound? 15. the car 16. In a minute will feed you, Spot. 16. I 17. Under the pile of leaves in the front yard was . 17. the ball 18. is the group’s best-known song? 18. What 19. In my opinion, is a better goalie than Alex. 19. she 20. Where in the world did get that hat? 20. Michael

TIPS

TRICKS

Here is a test to find the simple subject of most sentences: If you leave out the simple subject, a sentence does not make sense. EXAMPLE The frisky cat chased its tail. The frisky . . . chased its tail. [Cat is the simple subject.]

Chapter 1

Simple Subject and Complete Subject 1c. The simple subject is the main word or word group that tells whom or what the sentence is about.

The complete subject consists of all the words that tell whom or what a sentence is about. EXAMPLES

The Parts of a Sentence

The four new students arrived early. Complete subject The four new students Simple subject students

1 c

Is the winner of the go-cart race present? Complete subject Simple subject

the winner of the go-cart race winner

GRAMMAR

A round walnut table with five legs stood in the middle of the dining room. Complete subject A round walnut table with five legs Simple subject table

A simple subject may consist of one word or several words. EXAMPLES

Jets often break the sound barrier. [one word] Does Aunt Carmen own a grocery store? [two words] On the library shelf was The Island of the Blue Dolphins. [six words]

NOTE

In this book, the simple subject is usually referred to as the subject. Exercise 2

Identifying Subjects

Write the subject of each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. A book by N. Scott Momaday is on the table. 1. book

1. Born in 1934 in Oklahoma, Momaday lived on Navajo and Apache reservations in the Southwest. 2. Momaday’s father was a Kiowa. 3. As a young man, Momaday attended the University of New Mexico and Stanford University. 4. In The Way to Rainy Mountain, he tells about the myths and history of the Kiowa people. 5. The book includes poems, an essay, and stories about the Kiowa people. 6. The Way to Rainy Mountain was published in 1969. 7. After Momaday’s book came works by other modern American Indian writers. 8. William Least Heat-Moon traveled in a van across the United States and wrote about his journey. 9. Was he inspired to write by his travels? 10. Readers of this Osage writer enjoy his beautiful descriptions of nature. Subject and Predicate

Identifying Complete Subjects and Simple Subjects Write the [complete subject]in each of the following sentences. Then, underline the simple subject. GRAMMAR

Exercise 3

EXAMPLES

1. Stories about time travel make exciting reading. 1. Stories about time travel 2. Samuel Delany writes great science fiction. 2. Samuel Delany

1.[Ray Bradbury]is also a writer of science fiction. 2. [The Golden Apples of the Sun]is a collection of Bradbury’s short stories. 3. Is[your favorite story in that book]“A Sound of Thunder”? 4.[The main character in the story]is called Mr. Eckels. 5. For ten thousand dollars,[Mr. Eckels]joins Time Safari, Inc. 6.[He]is looking for the dinosaur Tyrannosaurus rex. 7. With four other men,[Bradbury’s hero]travels more than sixty million years back in time. 8. On the safari,[trouble]develops. 9. Because of one mistake, [the past]is changed. 10. Do [the results of that mistake]affect the future?

The Predicate 1d. The predicate of a sentence tells something about the subject. EXAMPLES

The phone rang. Old Faithful is a giant geyser in Yellowstone National Park. Jade Snow Wong wrote about growing up in San Francisco’s Chinatown.

Like the subject, the predicate may be found anywhere in a sentence. EXAMPLES

Outside the tent was a baby bear. Late in the night we heard a noise. [The predicate in this sentence is divided by the subject, we.]

Chapter 1

The Parts of a Sentence

1 d

Has the dough risen enough? [The predicate is divided by the subject, the dough.]

Exercise 4

GRAMMAR

Stop right there! [The subject in this sentence is understood to be you.]

Identifying Predicates

Write the predicate in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLES

1. My favorite sports poster is this one of Roberto Clemente. 1. is this one of Roberto Clemente 2. Have you heard of this famous sports hero? 2. Have heard of this famous sports hero

1. Also among my baseball treasures is a book about Clemente’s life and career. 2. Clemente played right field for the Pittsburgh Pirates, my favorite team. 3. During his amazing career, he won four National League batting titles. 4. In 1966, he was named the league’s Most Valuable Player. 5. Twice Clemente helped lead the Pirates to World Series victories. 6. In fourteen World Series games, Clemente never went without a hit. 7. Roberto Clemente died in a plane crash off the coast of his homeland, Puerto Rico. 8. The plane crash occurred during a flight to Nicaragua to aid earthquake victims. 9. After his death, Clemente was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. 10. In New York, a park has been named for this beloved ballplayer.

Subject and Predicate

Exercise 5

Writing Predicates

Make a sentence out of each of the following word groups by adding a predicate to fill the blank or blanks. Answers will vary. Sample GRAMMAR

EXAMPLES

responses are given. 1. A flock of geese 1. A flock of geese flew high overhead. 2. a poster of Nelson Mandela. 2. Over Kim’s desk hung a poster of Nelson Mandela.

1. My favorite food . 1. is spinach 2. A course in first aid . 2. is offered here 3. our car ? 3. Does; look dirty 4. Rock climbing . 4. is fun 5. were looking for gold 5. Spanish explorers in the Americas . 6. Several computers . 6. were given to our school 7. a new pair of in-line skates. 7. In the box was 8. The skyscrapers of New York City . 8. loomed above us 9. Some dogs . 9. chase cars 10. my family . 10. In June; is going to Mexico 11. Victory in the championship . 11. is his dream 12. all sorts of birds . 12. At night; roost there 13. The new store at the mall . 13. opened last week 14. a small, brown toad. 14. There sat 15. The flowers in Mr. Alvarez’s garden . 15. bloom in spring 16. my chores . 16. Now; are finished 17. Gerry’s allowance . 17. has been spent 18. we ? 18. Where are; going 19. The cool of the morning . 19. was soothing 20. The tiny kittens . 20. crawled out of the basket

Simple Predicate and Complete Predicate 1e. The simple predicate, or verb, is the main word or word group that tells something about the subject.

The complete predicate consists of a verb and all the words that describe the verb and complete its meaning. EXAMPLES

Chapter 1

The Parts of a Sentence

The pilot broke the sound barrier. Complete predicate broke the sound barrier Simple predicate (verb) broke

1 e

We should have visited the diamond field in Arkansas. Complete predicate should have visited the diamond field in Arkansas Simple predicate (verb) should have visited

GRAMMAR

The telephone on the table rang. Complete predicate rang Simple predicate (verb) rang NOTE

In this book, the simple predicate is usually referred to as the verb.

Exercise 6

Identifying Complete Predicates and Verbs

Write the complete predicate of each of the following sentences. Then, underline the verb. EXAMPLE

1. Who created the U.S. flag? 1. created the U.S. flag

1. Many scholars are unsure about the history of the Stars and Stripes. 2. The Continental Congress approved a design for the flag. 3. The flag’s design included thirteen red stripes and thirteen white stripes. 4. The top inner quarter of the flag was a blue field with thirteen white stars. 5. The name of the designer has remained a mystery. 6. During the American Revolution, the colonists needed a symbol of their independence. 7. George Washington wanted flags for the army. 8. Unfortunately, the flags did not arrive until the end of the Revolutionary War. 9. According to legend, Betsy Ross made the first flag. 10. However, most historians doubt the Betsy Ross story.

The Verb Phrase Some simple predicates, or verbs, consist of more than one word. Such verbs are called verb phrases (verbs that include one or more helping verbs). EXAMPLE

Kathy is riding the Ferris wheel.

Reference Note For information about helping verbs, see page 49.

Subject and Predicate

EXAMPLES

The carnival has been in town for two weeks. Should Imelda have gotten here sooner?

NOTE

GRAMMAR

Reference Note For information on adverbs, see page 54.

The words not and never are not verbs; they are adverbs. Adverbs are never part of a verb or verb phrase.

EXAMPLES

She has not written to me recently. I will never forget her. They don’t know my cousins. [Don’t is the contraction of do and not. The n’t is not part of the verb phrase do know.]

Exercise 7

Identifying Verbs and Verb Phrases

Write the verb or verb phrase in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLES

1. Look at these beautiful pictures of Hawaii. 1. Look 2. They were taken by our science teacher. 2. were taken

1. Hawaii is called the Aloha State. 2. It was settled by Polynesians about 2,000 years ago. 3. The musical heritage and rich culture of the original Hawaiians have contributed to the islands’ popularity. 4. Have you ever seen a traditional Hawaiian dance, one with drums and chants? 5. The Hawaiian islands are also known for their lush, exotic scenery. 6. I can certainly not imagine anything more spectacular than an active volcano at night. 7. Would you like a helicopter ride over misty waterfalls like those in Hawaii? 8. What an incredible sight that surely is! 9. Those Hawaiian dancers must have been practicing for years. 10. Save me a place on the next flight!

Chapter 1

The Parts of a Sentence

1 f

Finding the Subject

EXAMPLES

In high school we will have more homework. [The verb is will have. Who will have? We will have. We is the subject of the sentence.] Can you untie this knot? [Can untie is the verb. Who can untie? You can untie. You is the subject of the sentence.] The peak of Mount Everest was first reached by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay. [The verb is was reached. What was reached? Peak was reached. Peak is the subject of the sentence.] Ahead of the explorers lay a vast wilderness. [The verb is lay. What lay? Wilderness lay. Wilderness is the subject of the sentence.] Where are the Canary Islands located? [Are located is the verb. What are located? Canary Islands are located. Canary Islands is the subject of the sentence.] Pass the salad, please. [Pass is the verb. Who should pass? You pass. Understood you is the subject of the sentence.]

HELP When you are looking for the subject of a sentence, remember that the subject is never part of a prepositional phrase. Cross through any prepositional phrases; the subject will be one of the remaining words. EXAMPLE Several of the puzzle pieces are under the sofa. SUBJECT Several VERB are Reference Note For information on prepositional phrases, see page 59.

Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs Compound Subjects 1f. A compound subject consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same verb.

The conjunctions most commonly used to connect the words of a compound subject are and and or. EXAMPLES

Reference Note For information on conjunctions, see page 62.

Paris and London remain favorite tourist attractions. [The two parts of the compound subject have the same verb, remain.] Nelson Mandela or Archbishop Desmond Tutu will speak at the conference. [The two parts of the compound subject have the same verb, will speak.] Among my hobbies are reading, snorkeling, and painting. [The three parts of the compound subject have the same verb, are.] Subject and Predicate

GRAMMAR

To find the subject of a sentence, find the verb first. Then, ask Who? or What? before the verb.

GRAMMAR

TIPS

Exercise 8 TRICKS

In sentences with a compound subject joined by or, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it. Here is a quick test you can use. (1) Cover the part of the subject that is farther from the verb. (2) Decide whether the remaining part of the compound subject agrees with the verb. EXAMPLE The dog or the rabbits (digs, dig) holes in the garden. [The rabbits digs or the rabbits dig? The rabbits dig is correct.]

ANSWER The dog or the rabbits dig holes in the garden.

Chapter 1

Identifying Compound Subjects

Write the compound subject in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. The shapes and sizes of sand dunes are determined by the wind. 1. shapes, sizes

1. The national parks and monuments of the United States include many of the world’s most spectacular landforms. 2. The Grand Canyon and the waterfalls of Yosemite are examples of landforms shaped by erosion. 3. Water, wind, and other natural forces are continuing the age-old erosion of landforms. 4. On the Colorado Plateau, for example, natural bridges and arches, like the one in the photograph on the left, have been produced by erosion. 5. Likewise, Skyline Arch and Landscape Arch in Utah are two natural arches formed by erosion. 6. Underground, caves and immense caverns are created by rushing streams and waterfalls. 7. Stalagmites and stalactites, such as the ones in the photograph on the right, are formed by lime deposits from drops of water seeping into these caverns. 8. In river systems throughout the world, canyons and gorges are cut into the earth by erosion. 9. Many rapids and waterfalls have also originated through the process of erosion. 10. Do steep areas with heavy rainfall or dry regions with few trees suffer more from erosion?

The Parts of a Sentence

Exercise 9

1 g

Writing Compound Subjects

EXAMPLE

were at the bottom of my locker.

1. My bus pass and a pair of gym socks were at the bottom of my locker.

1. Yesterday arrived in the mail. 2. make loyal pets. 3. On the beach spotted a dolphin. 4. will present their report on the adventures of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. 5. In the attic were piled . 6. Ever since first grade, have been friends and neighbors. 7. Is coaching the tennis team this year? 8. For Indian food, always go to the Bombay Cafe in the shopping center nearby. 9. To our great surprise, out of my little brother’s pockets spilled . 10. Both may be seen on the African plains.

Compound Verbs 1g. A compound verb consists of two or more verbs that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same subject.

The conjunctions most commonly used to connect the words of a compound verb are and, or, and but. EXAMPLES

The rain has fallen for days and is still falling. The team played well but lost the game anyway. Will Rolando mop the floor or wash the dishes?

A sentence may contain both a compound subject and a compound verb. Notice in the following example that both subjects carry out the action of both verbs. EXAMPLE

A few vegetables and many flowers sprouted and grew in the rich soil. [The vegetables sprouted and grew, and the flowers sprouted and grew.]

Answers Exercise 9 Compound subjects will vary. Here are some possibilities: 1. four letters and a magazine 2. Dogs and birds 3. Daniel or Chandra 4. My sister and her friend 5. suitcases and picture albums 6. Kerry, Steven, and I 7. Hector or Alicia 8. Kimrey and I 9. a compass, six coins, and a toad 10. lions and zebras STYLE

TIP

Using compound subjects and verbs, you can combine ideas to make your writing less wordy. Compare the examples below. WORDY Orville and Wilbur Wright built one of the first airplanes. Orville and Wilbur Wright flew it near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. REVISED Orville and Wilbur Wright built one of the first airplanes and flew it near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

Subject and Predicate

GRAMMAR

Add a compound subject to each of the following predicates. Use and or or to join the parts of your compound subjects.

Exercise 10 Identifying Compound Verbs

GRAMMAR

HELP Be sure to include all parts of each verb phrase in Exercise 10.

MEETING THE CHALLENGE You can use compound subjects and compound verbs to make your writing smoother—less repetitive and more concise. Find an interesting picture or photograph that shows several things or people. Then, write a paragraph describing the picture, making sure to use a compound subject or compound verb in at least four sentences.

ANSWER Paragraphs will vary but should contain at least four compound subjects and/or verbs.

HELP Some of the subjects and verbs in Exercise 11 are compound.

Chapter 1

Write each compound verb or verb phrase in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Have you heard of the game Serpent or learned the game Senet? 1. have heard, learned

1. Just like children today, children in ancient Egypt played games and enjoyed toys. 2. For the Egyptian board game Serpent, players found or carved a serpent-shaped stone. 3. Players placed the serpent in the center of the board and then began the game. 4. They used place markers and threw bones or sticks as dice. 5. The players took turns and competed with one another in a race to the center. 6. Senet was another ancient Egyptian board game and was played by children and adults alike. 7. Senet looked like an easy game but was actually difficult. 8. Players moved their playing pieces toward the ends of three rows of squares but sometimes were stopped by their opponents. 9. Senet boards were complex and had certain squares for good luck and bad luck. 10. These squares could help players or could block their pieces. Exercise 11

Identifying Subjects and Verbs

Identify the subject and verb in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. American pioneers left their homes and traveled to the West. 1. pioneers—subject; left, traveled—verbs

1. Settlers faced and overcame many dangers. 2. Mount McKinley and Mount Whitney are two very high mountains. 3. Sacagawea of the Shoshone people helped open the West to explorers and settlers. 4. Every winter many skiers rush to the Grand Tetons.

The Parts of a Sentence

Review A

Identifying Subjects and Predicates

Write the simple subject and the verb or verb phrase in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

GRAMMAR

5. Did all of the mountaineers successfully ascend and descend Mount Everest? 6. Valleys and dense forests cool and refresh travelers in the Appalachian Mountains. 7. On Beartooth Highway in Montana, excellent campgrounds and scenic overlooks provide many views of distant glaciers. 8. Mount Evans is west of Denver and can be reached by the highest paved road in the United States. 9. Is the view from the top slopes of Mount Evans breathtaking? 10. Thick forests cover the Great Smoky Mountains and help form the peaks’ smoky mist.

1. Even the ancient Incas and the Aztecs paid and collected taxes. 1. Incas, Aztecs; paid, collected

HELP Some of the subjects and verbs in Review A are compound.

1. Among the obligations of citizens in large cities is the prompt payment of taxes. 2. The ancient citizens of Mesoamerica were no exception to this rule. 3. Are some of these taxes also known today as “tribute”? 4. Bowls, blankets, honey, or even warriors’ shields were given and accepted as tribute. 5. High officials and the sick did not, however, pay taxes. 6. In the interest of fairness, taxes must be counted and recorded in some way by accountants. 7. As a record, Incas knotted a string or cord and counted the number of knots. 8. The Codex Mendoza is a formal record of the Aztecs’ taxes. 9. Both the Incas and the Aztecs used the number 20 as the base of their mathematics. 10. Might roads, buildings, or emergency supplies have been paid for with the tribute, or taxes?

Subject and Predicate

Review B

GRAMMAR

HELP Some of the subjects and verbs in Review B are compound.

Identifying Subjects and Predicates

Write the following sentences. Underline the complete subjects once and the complete predicates twice. Then, circle each simple subject and each verb. EXAMPLES

1. The entire continent of Australia is occupied by a single country. 1. The entire. continent. of Australia .is occupied by a single country. 2. What do you know about this continent? 2. What. do . you . know. about this continent?

1. It is located within the Southern Hemisphere. 2. Can you name the capital of Australia? 3. Australia is a federation of six states and two territories. 4. The continent of Australia was claimed for Britain by Captain James Cook. 5. The native people of Australia live mainly in the desert regions and, traditionally, have a very close bond with their environment. 6. A large number of British colonists settled in cities and towns on the coast. 7. Many ranchers raise sheep and export wool. 8. In addition, large quantities of gold and uranium are mined in Australia. 9. The country is also highly industrialized and produces a variety of goods, ranging from shoes to airplanes. 10. Among Australia’s most unusual animals are the platypus and the anteater.

Kinds of Sentences Reference Note For information about how sentences can be classified according to their structure, see Chapter 7.

1h. A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period. EXAMPLES

Amy Tan was born in Oakland, California. I couldn’t hear what Jason said .

1i. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. Most imperative sentences end with a period. A strong command ends with an exclamation point. 18

Chapter 1

The Parts of a Sentence

EXAMPLES

1 h–k

Be quiet during the play. [command] Please give me another piece of melon. [request] Stop! [strong command]

EXAMPLES

GRAMMAR

The subject of a command or a request is always you, even if you doesn’t appear in the sentence. In such cases, you is called the understood subject. (You) Be quiet during the play. (You) Please give me another piece of melon. (You) Stop!

The word you is the understood subject even when the person spoken to is addressed by name. EXAMPLE

Miguel, (you) please answer the phone.

1j. An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark. EXAMPLES

When did you return from your camping trip? Did the surfboard cost much?

1k. An exclamatory sentence shows excitement or expresses strong feeling and ends with an exclamation point. EXAMPLES

Gabriella won the match! How terrifying that movie was!

Exercise 12 Classifying Sentences by Purpose

Label each of the following sentences declarative, imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory. EXAMPLE

1. Ask Yoshiko for the address. 1. imperative

1. Will your grandfather compete in the Kansas City Marathon again this year? 1. int. 2. Our school’s project, cleaning up the Silver River Nature Preserve, was a success. 2. dec. 3. Bring more sandbags over here now! 3. imp. 4. Is the Rig-Veda the oldest of the Hindu scriptures? 4. int. 5. Read this poem by Naomi Shihab Nye. 5. imp. Kinds of Sentences

GRAMMAR

6. How huge this library is! 6. exc. 7. Origami is the fascinating Japanese folk art of folding paper into shapes. 7. dec. 8. How did you make that paper crane? 8. int. 9. Please line up alphabetically. 9. imp. 10. After we eat supper, we’re going to my aunt’s house down the block. 10. dec. Review C

Classifying and Punctuating Sentences

Write the last word of each of the following sentences, adding the correct end mark. Then, label each sentence as declarative, imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory. EXAMPLE 1. dec. 2. imp. 3. int. 4. dec. 5. dec. 6. exc. 7. dec. 8. imp. 9. dec. 10. exc.

Chapter 1

1. Are prairie dogs social creatures 1. creatures?—interrogative

1. Many of these small mammals live together in underground “towns” like the one shown below. 2. Look at how prairie dogs dig family burrows . or ! 3. How large are the burrows? 4. The burrows sometimes cover several acres . 5. These creatures can usually be seen at night or in the early morning . 6. What alert animals prairie dogs are ! 7. At least one prairie dog always keeps a lookout for threats to the community . 8. Look at how it sits up to see better . or ! 9. It then dives headfirst into the burrow and alerts the colony . 10. How shrill the prairie dog’s whistle of alarm is !

The Parts of a Sentence

CHAPTER

Chapter Review

Numerals in brackets refer to the rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review. 1. frag. [1a] 2. sent. [1a] 3. frag. [1a] 4. sent. [1a] 5. sent. [1b] 6. sent. [1a] 7. sent. [1a] 8. frag. [1a] 9. frag. [1a] 10. sent. [1a]

GRAMMAR

A. Identifying Sentences Identify each of the following groups of words as a sentence or a sentence fragment. 1. Trying a double somersault. 2. She barely caught her partner’s hands! 3. As she began the triple. 4. She fell into the net. 5. The crowd gasped. 6. Even the clowns turned and looked. 7. Was she hurt? 8. Rolled off the net to the ground. 9. Smiling as she waved to the crowd. 10. She was fine!

B. Identifying Subjects Identify the [complete subject]of the following sentences. Then, underline the simple subject. The simple subject may be compound.

HELP Remember that the subject may be the understood you.

11. [1b, c, f] 12. [1b, c] 13. [1b, c] 14. [1b, c] 15. [1b, c] 16. [1b, c] 17. [1b, c] 18. [1b, c] 19. [1b, c, f] 20. [1b, c] 21. [1b, c, f]

11. [Foods and beverages with large amounts of sugar] can

contribute to tooth decay. 12. [The lava from a volcano] hardens when it cools. 13. [The earthquake survivors] camped on blankets in the rubble. 14. In Beijing, [bicyclists] weave through the busy streets. 15. By 1899, [many gold prospectors] had rushed to Alaska. 16. [The weather during an Alaskan summer] can be hot. 17. Have [you]read this collection of Claude McKay’s poems? 18. In the center of the table was [a huge bowl of fruit.] 19. Linked forever in legend are [Paul Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox.] 20. Have [many famous racehorses] been trained in Kentucky? 21. [The bright lights and the tall buildings] amaze and delight most visitors to New York City. Chapter Review

GRAMMAR

22. [1b, c, f] 23. (you) [1b, c] 24. [1b, c, f] 25. [1b, c]

22. Are Lita and Marisa ]going to give their presentation? 23. After soccer practice tomorrow afternoon, please come to my

house for dinner. 24. Inside the box were [letters and postcards written around the turn of the century. 25. The book Come a Stranger]was written by the award-winning author Cynthia Voigt.

C. Identifying Predicates Identify the [complete predicate]of the following sentences. Then, underline the simple predicate (verb or verb phrase). The simple predicate may be compound. 26. [1d, e] 27. [1d, e] 28. [1d, e, g] 29. [1d, e] 30. [1d, e] 31. [1d, e] 32. [1d, e] 33. [1d, e] 34. [1d, e] 35. [1d, e] 36. [1d, e] 37. [1d, e, g] 38. [1d, e, g] 39. [1d, e, g] 40. [1d, e]

26. Teenagers need a balanced diet for good health. 27. A balanced diet improves student performance in school.] 28. Students [are sometimes in a hurry and skip breakfast.] 29. [For a nutritious breakfast,]they [can eat cereal and fruit.] 30. Cheese and juice [also provide good nutrition.] 31. The cheese [contains calcium, an important mineral.] 32. People [need protein as well.] 33. Protein [builds body tissue.] 34. Protein [can be supplied by eggs, dried beans, red meat, fish,

and poultry.] 35. Carbohydrates [include whole grains, vegetables, and fruits.] 36. Junk foods [can ruin your appetite.] 37. Sweets [cause tooth decay and contain many calories.] 38. [According to nutritionists,]sweets [are low in nutrients and fill the body with “empty” calories.] 39. Good eating habits [keep you healthy and make you stronger.] 40. [Start eating right!]

D. Classifying and Punctuating Sentences Classify each of the following sentences as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. Then, write each sentence with the correct end punctuation. 41. dec. [1h]

Chapter 1

41. In ancient times, the Julian calendar was used .

The Parts of a Sentence

42. int. [1j] 43. dec. [1h] 44. exc. or dec. [1k or h] 45. dec. [1h] 46. dec. [1h] 47. imp. [1i] 48. dec. [1h] 49. exc. or dec. [1k or h] 50. int. [1j]

Writing Application Writing a Letter Using Complete Sentences Think of a party or other interesting event you have attended. Write a letter describing the event to a friend or relative who lives far away. Include details about the activities you enjoyed and about the other people who were there. Use complete sentences to make sure your thoughts are clear. Prewriting Make a list of the details that you would like to include in your letter. At this stage, you do not have to use complete sentences. Simply jot down your thoughts.

Use your prewriting list of details as you write your rough draft. Choose details that would be interesting to your friend or relative. You might organize your letter chronologically (describing events in the order in which they occurred).

Writing

Read your letter aloud. As you read, mark any parts of the letter that seem unclear. Add, cut, or rearrange details to make your letter clear and interesting to your reader. Revising

Publishing Check your work to make sure you have used only

complete sentences. Read your letter for any errors in spelling and punctuation. Then, send a copy of your letter to your friend or relative.

Chapter Review

GRAMMAR

42. Why was it called Julian? 43. It was named after the Roman leader Julius Caesar . 44. I thought so ! or . 45. Because the Julian calendar was not perfect, the Gregorian calendar was invented . 46. In 1752, the calendar was changed in England . 47. Tell me the result . 48. Eleven days in September were lost . 49. That’s the strangest thing I’ve ever heard ! or . 50. Were those days lost forever ?

CHAPTER

Parts of Speech Overview Noun, Pronoun, Adjective

Diagnostic Preview Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives Identify each italicized word in the following paragraphs as a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective. Numerals in brackets refer to the rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. [2a] 2. [2a] 3. [2a] 4. [2a] 5. [2c] 6. [2c] 7. [2a] 8. [2c] 9. [2a] 10. [2c]

Chapter 2

11. [2c] 12. [2c] 13. [2b] 14. [2a] 15. [2c] 16. [2b] 17. [2c] 18. [2a]

EXAMPLES

The [1] achievements of the [2] native peoples of North America have sometimes been overlooked. 1. noun 2. adjective

Recent [1] studies show that the Winnebago people developed a [2] calendar based on careful observation of the [3] heavens. An [4] archaeologist has found that markings on an old [5] calendar stick are the precise records of a [6] lunar year and a solar year. These records are remarkably accurate, considering that at the time the [7] Winnebagos had neither a [8] written language nor a system of [9] mathematics. [10] The calendar stick is a carved [11] hickory branch with [12] four sides. [13] It is worn along the [14] edges and shows other signs of frequent use. A [15] similar stick appears in a portrait of an early chief of the Winnebagos. In the portrait, the chief holds a calendar stick in [16] his right hand. [17] One current theory is that the chief went out at [18] sunrise and

Parts of Speech Overview

2 a

19. [2b] 20. [2c]

GRAMMAR

sunset to observe the sun and the moon. [19] He then marked on the stick what he saw. According to one researcher, this calendar is the [20] oldest indication we have that native North American peoples recorded the year day by day.

The Noun 2a. A noun is a word or word group that is used to name a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Persons

Jessye Norman, teacher, chef, Dr. Ling

Places

Grand Canyon, city, Namibia, kitchen

Things

lamp, granite, Nobel Prize, Golden Gate Bridge

Ideas

happiness, self-control, liberty, bravery

Notice that some nouns are made up of more than one word. A compound noun is a single noun made up of two or more words used together. The compound noun may be written as one word, as a hyphenated word, or as two or more words. One Word

grandmother, basketball

Hyphenated Word

mother-in-law, light-year

Two Words

grand piano, jumping jack

Exercise 1

TRICKS

To find the correct spelling of a compound noun, look it up in a recent dictionary.

Identifying Nouns

Identify the nouns in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

TIPS

1. We have been reading about patriotic heroines in our textbook. 1. heroines, textbook

HELP In Exercise 1, some nouns are used more than once.

1. Rebecca Motte was a great patriot. 2. During the Revolutionary War, British soldiers seized her mansion in South Carolina. 3. The American officer Henry Lee told Motte that the Americans would have to burn her home to smoke out the British. The Noun

GRAMMAR

4. Motte supported the plan and was glad to help her country. 5. She even supplied flaming arrows and a bow for the attack. 6. Other people might not have been so generous or patriotic. 7. The house was saved after the enemy raised the white flag of surrender. 8. Afterward, Motte invited soldiers from both sides to dinner. 9. This gesture showed that Motte had a generous heart. 10. The colonies and all citizens of the United States are in her debt.

Proper Nouns and Common Nouns Reference Note For more information about capitalizing proper nouns, see page 266.

A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea and begins with a capital letter. A common noun names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas and is generally not capitalized. Common Nouns

Proper Nouns

girl

Kay O’Neill

writer

Octavio Paz

country

Morocco

monument

Eiffel Tower

compact disc

A Long Way Home

book

The Blue Sword

religion

Buddhism

language

Arabic

city

Ottawa

Exercise 2 HELP In Exercise 2, some nouns are used more than once.

Chapter 2

Identifying Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Write the nouns in each of the following sentences. Then, identify each noun as a common noun or proper noun. EXAMPLE

Parts of Speech Overview

1. Mark visited an interesting museum in Colorado last month. 1. Mark—proper; museum—common; Colorado— proper; month—common

Exercise 3

GRAMMAR

1. Mark and his parents went to the Black American West Museum and Heritage Center in Denver. 2. The museum displays many items that cowboys used. 3. These items are from the collection of Paul Stewart, the man who founded the museum. 4. Mark saw saddles, knives, hats, and lariats. 5. He also saw many pictures of African American cowboys. 6. The museum is located in an old house that is listed in the National Register of.Historic Places. 7. The house once belonged to Dr..Justina L..Ford. 8. She was the first black female physician in Colorado. 9. Mark was amazed by all of the old medical instruments in one display. 10. He said he was glad doctors don’t use equipment like that anymore. Revising Sentences by Using Proper Nouns

Revise the following sentences by substituting a proper noun for each common noun. You might have to change some other words in each sentence. You may make up proper names. EXAMPLE

1. An ambassador visited a local school and spoke about his country. 1. Ambassador Rios visited Jackson High School and spoke about Brazil.

1. That painting is in a famous museum. 2. The police officer cheerfully directed us to the building on that street. 3. My relatives, who are originally from a small town, now live in a large city. 4. The librarian asked my classmate to return the book as soon as possible. 5. That newspaper is published daily; this magazine is published weekly. 6. The girl read a poem for the teacher. 7. That state borders the ocean. 8. The owner of that store visited two countries during a spring month. 9. A man flew to a northern city one day. 10. Last week the mayor visited our school and talked about the history of our city. The Noun

Exercise 4

Identifying and Classifying Nouns

Identify the nouns in the following sentences, and label each noun as a common noun or a proper noun. GRAMMAR

EXAMPLE

[1] Lillian Evanti performed in Europe, Latin America, and Africa. 1. Lillian Evanti—proper noun; Europe—proper noun; Latin America—proper noun; Africa—proper noun

[1] Evanti was the first African American woman to sing opera professionally. [2] Her talent was recognized early; when she was a child, she gave a solo concert in Washington,.D.C. [3] As an adult, she performed in a special concert at the White House for President Franklin Roosevelt and his wife, Eleanor. [4] Evanti also composed a musical piece titled “Himno Panamericano,” which was a great success. [5] Her career inspired many other African American singers. [6] A few years later Marian Anderson stepped into the limelight. [7] Always a champion of the arts, Mrs..Roosevelt again aided a great performer. [8] With the assistance and encouragement of the former First Lady, Anderson sang at a most appropriate site—the Lincoln Memorial. [9] Like Evanti, Anderson broke barriers, for before her, no other African American had sung at the famous Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. [10] One honor that Anderson earned was a place in the National Arts Hall.of.Fame.

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns A concrete noun names a person, place, or thing that can be perceived by one or more of the senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell). An abstract noun names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic.

Chapter 2

Concrete Nouns

photograph, music, pears, filmmaker, sandpaper, rose, Brooklyn Bridge

Abstract Nouns

love, fun, freedom, self-esteem, beauty, honor, wisdom, Buddhism

Parts of Speech Overview

Exercise 5

Writing Sentences with Concrete and Abstract Nouns

EXAMPLE

GRAMMAR

Identify each noun in the following list as concrete or abstract. Then, use each noun in an original sentence. 1. truth 1. abstract—People should always tell the truth.

1. soy sauce 2. brotherhood 3. laughter

4. ice 5. excitement 6. kindness

7. motor 8. health

9. pillow 10. honor

Collective Nouns Reference Note

A collective noun is a word that names a group. audience

committee

herd

quartet

batch

crew

jury

swarm

class

family

litter

team

Review A

For more information about collective nouns, see pages 158 and 167.

Using the Different Kinds of Nouns

Jacob Lawrence, Strong Man. Gouache on paper, 22” x 17”. Photo by Chris Eden, Francine Seders Gallery.

Complete the following poem, which is based on this painting. Add common, proper, concrete, abstract, or collective nouns as directed. For proper nouns, you’ll need to make up names of people and places. Be sure you capitalize all proper nouns. Meet my [1] (common), the really amazing, Truly tremendous [2] (proper), that’s who. You can see what [3] (abstract) he gives The [4] (collective) of fans who hang on him like glue. The walls of his gym on [5] (proper) Are covered with [6] (concrete) that show The muscled, tussled [7] (common) aplenty, Who work out there, come rain or come snow. Eduardo, [8] (proper), and I really enjoy The [9] (abstract) of hanging on tight Way above the [10] (concrete) and swinging, Held up by the muscleman’s might. The Noun

The Pronoun 2b. A pronoun is a word that is used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns. GRAMMAR

EXAMPLES

Ask Dan if Dan has done Dan’s homework. Ask Dan if he has done his homework. Both of Lois’s friends said both would help Lois find Lois’s missing books. Both of Lois’s friends said they would help her find her missing books.

Reference Note For information about choosing pronouns that agree with their antecedents, see page 165.

The word or word group that a pronoun stands for (or refers to) is called its antecedent. EXAMPLES

antecedent pronoun pronoun Frederick, have you turned in your report? antecedent pronoun Walking the dog is fun, and it is good exercise.

Sometimes the antecedent is not stated. EXAMPLES

Who asked that question? I did not understand what you said. Someone will have to clean up the mess.

Personal Pronouns A personal pronoun refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person). Personal Pronouns Singular

Plural

First Person

I, me, my, mine

we, us, our, ours

Second Person

you, your, yours

Third Person

he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its

they, them, their, theirs

HELP Some authorities prefer to call possessive pronouns (such as my, your, and their) possessive adjectives. Follow your teacher’s directions when you are labeling these words.

Chapter 2

Parts of Speech Overview

2 b

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns First Person

myself, ourselves

Second Person

yourself, yourselves

Third Person

himself, herself, itself, themselves

REFLEXIVE INTENSIVE

Tara enjoyed herself at the party. The team prided themselves on their victory. I myself cooked that delicious dinner. Did you redecorate the room yourself?

Demonstrative Pronouns A demonstrative pronoun points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Demonstrative Pronouns this EXAMPLES

that

these

HELP If you are not sure whether a pronoun is reflexive or intensive, use this test: Read the sentence aloud, omitting the pronoun. If the basic meaning of the sentence stays the same, the pronoun is intensive. If the meaning changes, the pronoun is reflexive. EXAMPLES Mark repaired the car himself. [Without himself, the meaning stays the same. The pronoun is intensive.] The children amused themselves all morning. [Without themselves, the sentence doesn’t make sense. The pronoun is reflexive.]

those

This is the book I bought for my sister. Are those the kinds of plants that bloom at night?

N O T E This, that, these, and those can also be used as adjectives.

When they are used in this way, they are called demonstrative adjectives. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE

Those are very sturdy shoes. Those shoes are very sturdy.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE

Did you order this? Did you order this salad?

Reference Note For more about demonstrative adjectives, see page 36.

The Pronoun

GRAMMAR

A reflexive pronoun refers to the subject and is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or another pronoun and is unnecessary to the meaning of the sentence.

Interrogative Pronouns An interrogative pronoun introduces a question. GRAMMAR

Interrogative Pronouns what EXAMPLES TIPS

which

who

whom

whose

What is the best brand of frozen yogurt? Who wrote Barrio Boy?

TRICKS

The indefinite pronouns some, any, none, all, more, and most may be singular or plural. Look closely at any prepositional phrase that follows these pronouns. The object of the preposition determines whether the pronoun is singular or plural. SINGULAR None of the milk is sour. [Milk is singular.]

Indefinite Pronouns An indefinite pronoun refers to a person, a place, a thing, or an idea that may or may not be specifically named. Common Indefinite Pronouns all

each

many

nobody

other

any

either

none

several

anyone

everything

most

no one

some

both

few

much

one

somebody

PLURAL None of the grapes are sweet. [Grapes is plural.]

EXAMPLES

Reference Note

NOTE

For information on indefinite pronouns and subject-verb agreement, see page 153.

Both of the girls forgot their lines. I would like some of that chow mein.

Most indefinite pronouns can also be used as adjectives.

PRONOUN ADJECTIVE

Some are bored by this movie. Some people are bored by this movie.

Relative Pronouns A relative pronoun introduces an adjective clause. Common Relative Pronouns that

Reference Note For information on subordinate clauses, see page 114.

Chapter 2

EXAMPLES

Parts of Speech Overview

which

who

whom

whose

Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence, was our country’s third president. Exercise is something that many people enjoy.

Identifying Pronouns

Identify each pronoun in the following sentences. Then, tell what type of pronoun each one is. EXAMPLES

1. The drama coach said he would postpone the rehearsal. 1. he—personal

HELP Some sentences in Exercise 6 have more than one pronoun.

GRAMMAR

Exercise 6

2. Does Pamela, who is traveling to Thailand, have her passport and ticket? 2. who—relative; her—personal

1. “I want you to study,” Ms. Gaines said to the class. 2. The firefighter carefully adjusted her oxygen mask. 3. The children made lunch themselves. 4. Jenny and Rosa decided they would get popcorn, but Amy didn’t want any. 5. Who will be the next president of the school board? 6. Mr. Yoshira, this is Mrs. Volt, a neighbor of yours. 7. Ralph Bunche, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, was a diplomat for his country at the United Nations. 8. Of all United States Olympic victories, perhaps none were more satisfying than Jesse Owens’s 1936 triumphs in the 200-meter dash and broad jump. 9. Oh, yes, the puppy taught itself how to open the gate. 10. Only one of seventy-five qualified boys and girls will win the grand prize. Oral Practice

1. personal/personal 2. personal 3. intensive 4. personal/indefinite 5. interrogative 6. demonstrative/ personal 7. relative/personal 8. indefinite

9. reflexive 10. indefinite

Adding Appropriate Pronouns to Sentences

Read each of the following sentences aloud. Then, re-read each sentence, replacing the italicized words with an appropriate pronoun. EXAMPLE

1. The boy forgot the boy’s homework. 1. The boy forgot his homework.

1. Put the flowers in water before the flowers’ petals droop. 2. The canoe capsized as the canoe neared the shore. 3. The players convinced the players that the players would win the game. 4. Lori oiled the bike before Lori put the bike in the garage. 5. Tim said, “Tim answered all six questions on the quiz.” 6. Ben folded the newspapers for Ms. Luke, and then Ben stuffed the newspapers in plastic bags for Ms. Luke.

1. their 2. it 3. themselves/they 4. she/it 5. I 6. he/ them/her The Pronoun

7. we 8. it

GRAMMAR

9. she 10. his/ them

7. Sarah, Keith, and I arrived early so that Sarah, Keith, and I could get good seats. 8. Her wheelchair was amazingly fast, and her wheelchair was lightweight, too. 9. My sister just graduated from college, and my sister is now working as a computer programmer. 10. Because Japan fascinates Ron and Ron’s brother, this film will interest Ron and Ron’s brother.

The Adjective 2c. An adjective is a word that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun. COM P U T E R T I P Using a software program’s thesaurus can help you choose appropriate adjectives. To make sure that an adjective has exactly the connotation you intend, check the word in a dictionary.

To modify a word means to describe the word or to make its meaning more definite. An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by telling what kind, which one, how much, or how many. What Kind?

Which One or Ones?

How Much or How Many?

Korean children

seventh grade

several days

busy dentist

these countries

five dollars

braided hair

any book

no marbles

Sometimes an adjective comes after the word it modifies. EXAMPLES Reference Note

The box is empty. [The predicate adjective empty modifies box.]

For more about predicate adjectives, see page 81.

A woman, kind and helpful, gave us directions. [The adjectives kind and helpful modify woman.]

Chapter 2

Parts of Speech Overview

2 c

Articles

EXAMPLES

GRAMMAR

The most commonly used adjectives are a, an, and the. These adjectives are called articles. A and an are called indefinite articles because they refer to any member of a general group. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound. An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. A frog croaked. An orange is a good source of vitamin C. My cousin Jimmy wears a uniform to school. [Even though u is a vowel, the word uniform begins with a consonant sound.] This is an honor. [Even though h is a consonant, the word honor begins with a vowel sound. The h is not pronounced.]

The is called the definite article because it refers to someone or something in particular. EXAMPLES

The frog croaked. Where is the orange?

Nouns or Adjectives? Many words that can stand alone as nouns can also be used as adjectives modifying nouns or pronouns. Nouns

Adjectives

bean

bean soup

spring

spring weather

gold

gold coin

football

football game

Labor Day

Labor Day weekend

Super Bowl

Super Bowl party

Milan

Milan fashions

White House

White House security

Persian Gulf

Persian Gulf pearls

Reference Note For more about words used as different parts of speech, see pages 39 and 67.

The Adjective

Demonstrative Adjectives

GRAMMAR

Reference Note For more about demonstrative pronouns, see page 31.

This, that, these, and those can be used both as adjectives and as pronouns. When they modify a noun or pronoun, they are called demonstrative adjectives. When they are used alone, they are called demonstrative pronouns. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Exercise 7

This drawing is mine, and that drawing is his. These soccer balls are much more expensive than those soccer balls are. This is mine and that is his. These are much more expensive than those are.

Identifying Adjectives

Identify the adjectives in the following sentences, and give the noun or pronoun each modifies. Do not include the articles a, an, and the. EXAMPLE

1. Why don’t you take the local bus home from school on cold days? 1. local—bus; cold—days

1. On winter afternoons, I sometimes walk home after band practice rather than ride on a crowded, noisy bus. 2. I hardly even notice the heavy traffic that streams past me on the street. 3. The wet sidewalk glistens in the bright lights from the windows of stores. 4. The stoplights throw green, yellow, and red splashes on the pavement. 5. After I turn the corner away from the busy avenue, I am on a quiet street, where a jolly snowman often stands next to one of the neighborhood houses. 6. At last, I reach my peaceful home. 7. There I am often greeted by my older brother, Kenny, and my sister, Natalie. 8. I know they are glad to see me. 9. Delicious smells come from the kitchen where Mom and Dad are cooking dinner. 10. This quiet, private walk always makes me feel a little tired but also happy. 36

Chapter 2

Parts of Speech Overview

Exercise 8

Writing Appropriate Adjectives

EXAMPLES

[1] parks have [2] 1. Many 2. wooded

trails for hikers.

The hikers went exploring in the [1] forest. Sometimes they had difficulty getting through the [2] undergrowth. On [3] occasions they almost turned back. They kept going and were rewarded for their [4] effort. During the [5] hike through the woods, they discovered [6] kinds of [7] animals. In the afternoon the [8] hikers pitched camp in a [9] clearing. They were [10] for supper and rest.

1. dark 2. thick 3. several 4. huge 5. long 6. ten 7. small 8. tired 9. beautiful 10. ready

Reference Note

Proper Adjectives A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun. Proper Nouns

Proper Adjectives

Thanksgiving

Thanksgiving dinner

Catholicism

Catholic priest

Middle East

Middle Eastern country

Africa

African continent

Notice that a proper adjective, like a proper noun, is capitalized. Common adjectives are generally not capitalized. N O T E Some proper nouns, such as Thanksgiving, do not change

spelling when they are used as adjectives.

Exercise 9

Identifying Common and Proper Adjectives

For more information about capitalizing proper adjectives, see page 276.

MEETING THE CHALLENGE Make a list of at least five nouns and five adjectives that describe you. Use your list to write a short personal description. Underline the nouns and adjectives you picked.

ANSWER Descriptions will vary but should contain five underlined nouns and five underlined adjectives.

Identify the adjectives in the sentences on the next page. Then, tell whether each is a common or proper adjective. Do not include the articles a, an, and the. The Adjective

GRAMMAR

Complete the following story by writing an appropriate adjective to fill each blank. Adjectives will vary. Sample responses are given.

EXAMPLE

1. We have been studying how various animals protect themselves. 1. various—common

GRAMMAR

1. Many small animals defend themselves in unusual ways. 2. For example, South American armadillos wear suits of armor that consist of small, bony scales. 3. Armadillos seem delicate, with their narrow faces. 4. However, their tough armor protects them well. 5. Likewise, the Asian anteater has scales that overlap like the shingles on a roof. 6. Anteaters and armadillos have strong claws and long tongues. 7. Armadillo is a Spanish word that can be translated as “little armor.” 8. Texas and Florida residents as well as Mexican citizens are familiar with these shy creatures. 9. At early twilight, look for armadillos, energetic and ready for a meal of unlucky spiders or insects. 10. Like tortoises, armadillos can pull in their noses and all four of their feet for better protection.

Exercise 10 Writing Proper Adjectives

Change the following proper nouns into proper adjectives. EXAMPLE

HELP Use a dictionary to help you spell the adjectives in Exercise 10.

1. Spain 1. Spanish

1. Rome 2. Victoria 3. Memorial Day 4. Korea 5. Congress

Review B

6. New Year’s Day 7. Inca 8. Shakespeare 9. Judaism 10. Celt

Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives

Identify each italicized word in the following paragraph as a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective. EXAMPLE

Chapter 2

Parts of Speech Overview

Four [1] forces govern the flight of an aircraft. 1. noun

GRAMMAR

Lift and thrust must overcome [1] drag and weight. If an airplane is very [2] heavy, it cannot lift off unless it has great thrust or speed. If the craft is slow, [3] it may not have enough thrust to achieve lift. By 1783, the [4] French Montgolfiers had learned how to beat gravity and achieve lift in their hot-air balloon. However, it had little thrust and didn’t steer well. Nevertheless, [5] Parisians didn’t mind the unpredictability. In fact, everybody [6] who was anybody wanted to hitch a ride on a balloon. With a rudder and propellers, airships (also known as blimps, dirigibles, and Zeppelins) achieved enough thrust to be steered but became unpopular after the [7] Hindenburg met [8] its fiery fate. Not until Orville and [9] Wilbur Wright put an engine on their famous craft and made its wings slightly [10] movable was the quest for thrust and lift achieved. As you know, the rest is history.

Determining Parts of Speech Remember, the way a word is used in a sentence determines what part of speech it is. Some words may be used as nouns or as adjectives. NOUN ADJECTIVE

The helmet is made of steel. It is a steel helmet.

Some words may be used as pronouns or as adjectives. PRONOUN ADJECTIVE

That is a surprise. That problem is difficult. Determining Parts of Speech

Review C

Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives

GRAMMAR

Identify the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the following sentences. Do not include the articles a, an, and the. EXAMPLE

1. We walked along the sandy beach at sundown. 1. We—pronoun; sandy—adjective; beach—noun; sundown—noun

1. When the tide comes in, it brings a variety of interesting items from the sea. 2. When the tide ebbs, it leaves behind wonderful treasures for watchful beachcombers. 3. Few large creatures live here, but you almost certainly will find several small animals if you try. 4. Some live in shallow burrows under the wet sand and emerge in the cool evening to eat plants and other matter. 5. A number of different species of beetle like this part of the beach. 6. Around them you can find bristly flies and tiny worms. 7. You might also come across old pieces of wood with round holes and tunnels in them. 8. These holes are produced by shipworms. 9. If you watch the shoreline carefully, you will see many signs of life that casual strollers miss. 10. Low tide is a marvelous time to search along the shore.

Chapter 2

Parts of Speech Overview

CHAPTER

Chapter Review

Numerals in brackets refer to the rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review. 1.–5. [2a]

GRAMMAR

A. Identifying Types of Nouns For each of the following sentences, identify the noun of the type indicated in parentheses. There may be more than one type of noun in each sentence. 1. No one understands why whales sometimes strand them-

selves. (common) 2. Since 1985, people in a group called Project Jonah have used an inflatable pontoon to rescue stranded whales and other marine mammals. (proper) 3. The people in Project Jonah find fulfillment in helping stranded mammals. (abstract) 4. More than two thousand marine mammals have been helped in recent years. (concrete) 5. The group has rescued mammals ranging in size from dolphins to whales. (collective)

B. Identifying Types of Pronouns For each of the following sentences, identify the pronoun of the type indicated in parentheses. There may be more than one type of pronoun in each sentence. 6.–15. [2b]

6. Which of all the animals do you think has the worst reputa-

tion? (interrogative) 7. I believe the skunk is the animal that most people want to avoid. (relative) 8. The skunk can easily protect itself from others. (reflexive) 9. It can spray those nearby with a bad-smelling liquid. (personal) 10. This is a repellant that drives away predators. (demonstrative) 11. What do you think a skunk uses as its warning? (interrogative) 12. It warns possible predators by stamping its feet, which is intended to frighten the predator. (relative) 13. When the skunk needs to attack some other animal, it sprays in the direction of that animal. (personal) Chapter Review

14. Anyone who has ever been sprayed by a skunk will never for-

GRAMMAR

get the smell. (indefinite) 15. I myself would prefer never to upset a skunk. (intensive)

C. Identifying Adjectives Identify the adjectives in each of the following sentences. Then, write the word the adjective modifies. Do not include the articles a, an, and the. A sentence may have more than one adjective. 16.–25. [2c]

16. Chapultepec is the name of a historic castle on a hill in

Mexico City. 17. This word means “hill of the grasshopper” in the language of the early Aztecs. 18. Aztec emperors used the park area for hunting and relaxation. 19. In 1783, the hilltop was chosen as the location for the castle of the Spanish viceroy. 20. Even though the castle was never finished, it was used as a fortress during the colonial period of Mexican history. 21. After several decades of neglect, the unfinished castle became the home of the National Military Academy in 1842. 22. In 1847, during a war against the United States, this castle was captured by invading troops. 23. Almost twenty years later, the emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, converted the castle into an imperial residence. 24. After the downfall of Maximilian in 1867, the castle became the summer residence of Mexican presidents. 25. In 1937, the property was converted into a national museum.

D. Identifying Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives

26. [2c] 27. [2a] 28. [2a] 29. [2b] 30. [2a] 31. [2a]

Chapter 2

32. [2c] 33. [2c] 34. [2a] 35. [2b] 36. [2a]

The following paragraph contains twenty numbered, italicized words. Identify each italicized word as a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective. In [26] this country [27] mangroves grow along the coasts of [28] Florida. [29] They form a [30] wonderland where land, water, and [31] sky blend. [32] The lush, green [33] mangrove islands and [34] shoreline are both beautiful and valuable. Mangroves are important to [35] our [36] environment. They

Parts of Speech Overview

37. [2a] 38. [2c] 39. [2c] 40. [2c] 41. [2b]

42. [2c] 43. [2c] 44. [2c] 45. [2a]

GRAMMAR

produce [37] tons of valuable [38] vegetable matter and are an [39] essential part of [40] tropical biology. So far as [41] we know, the [42] first reference to mangroves dates back to [43] Egyptian times. A [44] South African expert has also discovered evidence of mangrove islands along the [45] Red Sea.

Writing Application Using Pronouns in a Report Clear Pronoun Reference Your class is creating a bulletin board display to honor exceptional people. For the display, write a brief report about someone you know and admire. Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to their antecedents. Prewriting First, you will need to select your subject. Make a list of the different people you know. Which of these people do you find really remarkable? After you choose a subject, jot down notes about this person. Tell what this person has done to earn your respect and admiration. Writing As you write your first draft, refer to your notes. Your thesis statement should briefly state what is exceptional about your subject. In the rest of your paragraphs, give specific examples that illustrate why the person is exceptional. Revising Now, read through your report and imagine that you do not know the subject. What do you think about him or her? Does the person sound remarkable? If not, you may want to add or cut details or rearrange your report. Read your report aloud. Combine short, related sentences into longer, smoother sentences. Publishing Look closely at your use of pronouns. Be sure that each pronoun has a clear antecedent. You may need to correct some sentences to make the antecedents clear. You and your classmates may want to use your reports to make a classroom bulletin board display. If possible, include pictures or drawings of your subjects. You may also wish to send a copy of your report to your exceptional subject.

Reference Note For more about combining sentences, see page 418.

Chapter Review

CHAPTER

Parts of Speech Overview Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection

Diagnostic Preview

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. prep. [3h] 2. v. [3a] 3. prep. [3h] 4. conj. [3i(1)] 5. adv. [3g] 6. v. [3a] 7. prep. [3h] 8. adv. [3g] 9. adv. [3g] 10. adv. [3g] 11. adv. [3g] 12. v. [3a]

Chapter 3

Identifying Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections Identify each italicized word or word group in the following paragraphs as a verb, an adverb, a preposition, a conjunction, or an interjection. EXAMPLES

Some [1] very unusual words [2] are used [3] in crossword puzzles. 1. adverb 2. verb 3. preposition

The first crossword puzzle was published [1] in 1913. It [2] appeared on the Fun Page [3] of a New York City newspaper, [4] and readers [5] immediately [6] asked the editors [7] for more. [8] Almost every daily newspaper in the United States [9] now publishes crossword puzzles. Every day, millions of Americans [10] faithfully work crossword puzzles. Many people take puzzles [11] quite seriously. For many, solving puzzles [12] is a competitive game.

Parts of Speech Overview

The Verb

3 a, b

13. v. [3a] 14. adv. [3g] 15. prep. [3h] 16. conj. [3i] 17. adv. [3g] 18. v. [3a] 19. int. [3j] 20. conj. [3i(1)]

GRAMMAR

I [13] do puzzles [14] strictly for fun. Best of all, I can work on them [15] by myself. That way, no one knows whether I succeed [16] or fail. I [17] occasionally [18] brag about my successes. [19] “Aha!” I exclaim. “That was a tough one, [20] but I filled in every space.”

3a. A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being. EXAMPLES

We celebrated the Chinese New Year yesterday. The holiday is usually in February.

NOTE

In this book, verbs are classified as action or linking verbs, as helping or main verbs, and as transitive or intransitive verbs.

Action Verbs 3b. An action verb is a verb that expresses either physical or mental activity. EXAMPLES

The owls hooted all night. [physical action] Gloria plays volleyball. [physical action] She thought about the problem. [mental action] I believe you. [mental action]

N O T E Action verbs may be transitive or intransitive.

Exercise 1

Classifying Verbs

Reference Note For more information about transitive and intransitive verbs, see page 52.

Tell whether each of the following action verbs expresses physical or mental action. EXAMPLE

1. visualize 1. mental

1. pounce 1. phy. 5. rest 5. phy. 9. shout 9. phy. 2. consider 2. men. 6. remember 6. men. 10. nibble 10. phy. 3. wish 3. men. 7. dash 7. phy. 4. want 4. men. 8. anticipate 8. men. The Verb

Exercise 2

Identifying Action Verbs

Identify each action verb in the following sentences. GRAMMAR

EXAMPLE HELP Sentences in Exercise 2 may contain more than one action verb.

1. I saw that movie last week. 1. saw

1. For a science project, Elena built a sundial. 2. Mr. Santos carefully explained the word problem to each of the students. 3. I enjoy soccer more than any other sport. 4. This waterfall drops two hundred feet. 5. Mike’s bicycle suddenly skidded and fell hard on the wet pavement. 6. Mrs. Karras showed us the way to Johnson City. 7. Mix the ingredients slowly. 8. The heavy traffic delayed us. 9. For the Jewish holiday of Purim, Rachel and her sister Elizabeth gave a party. 10. The early Aztecs worshiped the sun.

Linking Verbs 3c. A linking verb is a verb that expresses a state of being. A linking verb connects, or links, the subject to a word or word group that identifies or describes the subject. EXAMPLES

Denzel Washington is an actor. [The verb is connects actor with the subject Denzel Washington.] The children remained quiet. [The verb remained links quiet with the subject children.]

NOTE

Reference Note For more information about transitive and intransitive verbs, see page 52.

Linking verbs never have objects (words that tell who or what receives the action of the verb). Therefore, linking verbs are always intransitive.

Some Forms of the Verb Be

Chapter 3

were

will be

can be

has been

shall be

should be

are

have been

may be

was

had been

might be

would have been

Parts of Speech Overview

Identify the form of.the verb in parentheses that agrees with its subject. EXAMPLE

1. Special tours (is, are) offered at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. 1. are

1. This museum (has, have) been called the best of all the Smithsonian museums. 2. This enormous building (covers, cover) three blocks. 3. Twenty-three galleries (offers, offer) visitors information and entertainment. 4. The different showrooms (deals, deal) with various aspects of air and space travel. 5. As you can see, the exhibits (features, feature) antique aircraft as well as modern spacecraft. 6. In another area, a theater (shows, show) films on a five-story-high screen. 7. A planetarium (is, are) located on the second floor. 8. Projectors (casts, cast) realistic images of stars on the ceiling. 9. Some tours (is, are) conducted by pilots. 10. In addition, the museum (houses, house) a large research library. Agreement of Subject and Verb

149

Exercise 4

Proofreading for Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement

Most of the following sentences contain errors in subject-verb agreement. If a verb does not agree with its subject, write the correct form of the verb. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. More than fifteen million people lives in and around Mexico’s capital. 1. live

USAGE

1. Located in an ancient lake bed, Mexico City have been built on Aztec ruins. 1. has 2. Visitors admire the colorful paintings of Diego Rivera at the National Palace. 2. C 3. In one of the city’s many subway stations, an Aztec pyramid still stand. 3. stands 4. Sculptures grace the Alameda, which is Mexico City’s main park. 4. C 5. Atop the Latin American Tower, an observatory offer a great view on a clear day. 5. offers 6. are 6. At the National Autonomous University of Mexico, the library’s outer walls is famous as works of art. 7. Juan O’Gorman’s huge mosaics shows the cultural history of Mexico. 7. show 8. Usually, tourists is quite fascinated by the Great Temple of the Aztecs. 8. are 9. Many fiestas fills Mexico City’s social calendar. 9. fill 10. In addition, the city has one of the largest soccer stadiums in the world. 10. C

Problems in Agreement Phrases Between Subject and Verb 8c. The number of a subject is not changed by a phrase following the subject. EXAMPLES

The hero of those folk tales is Coyote. [The verb is agrees with the subject hero, not with tales.] The successful candidate, along with two of her aides, has entered the auditorium. [The helping verb has agrees with the subject candidate, not with aides.]

150

Chapter 8

Agreement

8 c

Scientists from all over the world have gathered in Geneva. [The helping verb have agrees with the subject Scientists, not with world.] The crystal pitcher, oozing water droplets, was cracked along the base. [The helping verb was agrees with the subject pitcher, not with droplets.] If the subject is the indefinite pronoun all, any, more, most, none, or some, its number may be determined by the object of a prepositional phrase that follows it. EXAMPLES

Exercise 5

Most of the essays were graded. [Most refers to the plural word essays.] Most of this essay is illegible. [Most refers to the singular word essay.]

Reference Note For more about indefinite pronouns, see Rules 8d–8f on page 152.

USAGE

NOTE

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the form of.the verb in parentheses that agrees with its subject. EXAMPLE

1. The water in the earth’s oceans (cover, covers) much of the planet’s surface. 1. covers

1. A tidal wave, despite its name, (is, are) not caused by the tides. 2. Earthquakes beneath the sea (causes, cause) most tidal waves. 3. A network of warning signals (alert, alerts) people in coastal areas of an approaching tidal wave. 4. The tremendous force of tidal waves sometimes (causes, cause) great destruction. 5. Walls of earth and stone along the shore (is, are) often too weak to protect coastal villages. 6. Some tidal waves, according to this encyclopedia article, (travel, travels) more than five hundred miles an hour. 7. Tidal waves in the open ocean generally (do, does) not cause much interest. 8. The height of tidal waves there often (remain, remains) low. 9. However, waves up to one hundred feet high (occur, occurs) when tidal waves hit land. 10. The scientific name for tidal waves (are, is) tsunamis.

Problems in Agreement

151

Indefinite Pronouns

USAGE

You may recall that personal pronouns refer to specific people, places, things, or ideas. A pronoun that does not refer to a definite person, place, thing, or idea is called an indefinite pronoun.

HELP The words one, thing, and body are singular. The indefinite pronouns that contain these words are singular, too.

Indefinite Pronouns

she

anybody

them

both

either

you

everyone

8d. The following indefinite pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something. EXAMPLES

Each of the newcomers was welcomed to the city. Neither of these papayas is ripe.

EXAMPLES Was [every]one there?

Does anybody on the bus speak Arabic?

[No]thing works better. [Some]body has answered.

Personal Pronouns

Exercise 6

Identify Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Choose the form of.the verb in parentheses that agrees with its subject.

HELP Remember that the subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.

EXAMPLE

1. One of these books (is, are) yours. 1. is

1. Neither of the movies (were, was) especially funny. 2. Everybody in those classes (gets, get) to research a historical person. 3. Someone among the store owners (donates, donate) the big trophy each year. 4. Each of the Jackson brothers (study, studies) dance. 5. No one on either team (was, were) ever in a playoff before. 6. Everyone with an interest in sports (are, is) at the tryouts. 7. Anybody with sewing skills (are, is) needed for the project. 8. Each of our neighbors (have, has) helped us plant the new community garden. 152

Chapter 8

Agreement

8 d–f

9. One of the new Spanish teachers (supervises, supervise) the language lab. 10. Nobody in our family (speak, speaks) Greek well, but we all can speak a little bit. 8e. The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, several. EXAMPLES

Few of our neighbors have parakeets. Many of them keep dogs as pets.

The number of the pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some is often determined by the number of the object in a prepositional phrase following the subject. These pronouns are singular when they refer to a singular word and are plural when they refer to a plural word. EXAMPLES

All of the fruit is ripe. [All is singular because it refers to the singular word fruit. The verb is is singular to agree with the subject All.] All of the pears are ripe. [All is plural because it refers to the plural word pears. The verb are is plural to agree with the subject All.] Some of the harvest has been sold. [Some is singular because it refers to the singular word harvest. The helping verb has is singular to agree with the subject Some.] Some of the apples have been sold. [Some is plural because it refers to the plural word apples. The helping verb have is plural to agree with the subject Some.]

HELP Some indefinite pronouns, such as both, each, and some, can also be used as adjectives. When an indefinite adjective comes before the subject of a sentence, the verb agrees with the subject as it normally would. EXAMPLES Children love playing in the park. Both children love playing in the park. The child loves playing in the park. Each child loves playing in the park.

NOTE

The pronouns listed in Rule 8f aren’t always followed by prepositional phrases. EXAMPLES

All are here. Some has spilled.

In such cases you should look at the context—the sentences before and after the pronoun—to see if the pronoun refers to a singular or a plural word.

Problems in Agreement

153

USAGE

8f. The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some may be either singular or plural, depending on their meaning in a sentence.

Exercise 7

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the verb form in parentheses that agrees with its subject. EXAMPLE

1. Somebody in the club (want, wants) the meetings held on a different day. 1. wants

USAGE

1. “Both of the songs (sound, sounds) good to me,” Gregory said. 2. If anyone (know, knows) a better way to get to Washington Square, please tell me. 3. Each of the problems (are, is) easy to solve if you know the correct formulas. 4. Probably everyone in the class (remember, remembers) how to solve the equation. 5. All of the new research on dreams (is, are) fascinating. 6. Most of our dreams (occur, occurs) toward morning. 7. Few of us really (understand, understands) the four cycles of sleep. 8. Most of the research (focus, focuses) on the cycle known as rapid eye movement, or REM. 9. None of last night’s dream (is, are) clear to me. 10. Many of our dreams at night (is, are) about that day’s events. Review A

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the verb form in parentheses that agrees with its subject. EXAMPLE

1. The flying object shown on the next page probably (look, looks) familiar to you. 1. looks

1. Many people throughout the world (claims, claim) to have seen objects like this. 2. However, no one (know, knows) for sure what they are. 3. They (resembles, resemble) huge plates or saucers. 4. Not surprisingly, people (call, calls) them flying saucers. 5. Since 1947, they (has, have) been officially called unidentified flying objects, or UFOs. 6. The U.S. government (has, have) investigated many unusual UFO sightings. 154

Chapter 8

Agreement

USAGE

8 g

7. The U.S. Air Force (was, were) responsible for conducting these investigations. 8. Government records (shows, show) that more than twelve thousand sightings were reported between 1948 and 1969. 9. Most reported sightings (has, have) turned out to be fakes, but others remain unexplained. 10. None of the official reports positively (proves, prove) that UFOs come from outer space.

Compound Subjects 8g. Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb. EXAMPLES

Our dog and cat get baths in the summer. Mr. Duffy and his daughter have gone fishing.

A compound subject that names only one person or thing takes a singular verb. EXAMPLES

A famous singer and dancer is going to speak at our drama club meeting. [One person is meant.] Macaroni and cheese is my favorite pasta dish. [One dish is meant.]

Problems in Agreement

155

Exercise 8

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the correct form of.the verb in parentheses. If you choose a singular verb with any of these compound subjects, be prepared to explain why. EXAMPLE

USAGE

3. One person is meant.

8. One combination is meant.

1. Chris and her sister (is, are) in the school band. 1. are

1. (Is, Are) the brown bear and the polar bear related? 2. Wind and water (erodes, erode) valuable farmland throughout the United States. 3. My guide and companion in Bolivia (was, were) Pilar. 4. New words and new meanings for old words (is, are) included in a good dictionary. 5. Mrs. Chang and her daughter (rents, rent) an apartment. 6. Iron and calcium (needs, need) to be included in a good diet. 7. Mr. Marley and his class (has, have) painted a wall-size map. 8. A horse and buggy (was, were) once a common way to travel. 9. Tornadoes and hurricanes (is, are) dangerous storms. 10. Fruit and cheese (tastes, taste) good together. 8h. Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb. EXAMPLES

STYLE

TIP

The chief geologist or her assistant is due to arrive tonight. [Either one is due, not both.] Neither a rabbit nor a mole does that kind of damage. [Neither one does the damage.]

Compound subjects that have both singular and plural parts can sound awkward even though they are correct. Whenever possible, revise sentences to avoid such constructions.

EXAMPLES

AWKWARD Two small boards or one large one is what we need to patch that hole.

8i. When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb.

REVISED We need two small boards or one large one to patch that hole.

156

Chapter 8

Agreement

Plural subjects joined by or or nor take a plural verb. Either mice or squirrels are living in our attic. Neither the senators nor the representatives want the bill to be vetoed by the President.

EXAMPLES

A book or flowers usually make an appropriate gift. [The verb agrees with the nearer subject, flowers.] Flowers or a book usually makes an appropriate gift. [The verb agrees with the nearer subject, book.]

Exercise 9

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the correct form of.the verb in parentheses in each of the following sentences. Be prepared to explain the reason for your choice. EXAMPLE

8 h, i

1. The club president or the officers (meets, meet) regularly with the sponsors. 1. meet

HELP In the example, the verb meet agrees with the nearer subject, officers.

Review B

USAGE

1. Neither pens nor pencils (is, are) needed to mark the ballots. 2. Either my aunt or my uncle (is, are) going to drive us. 3. That table or this chair (was, were) made by hand in Portugal. 4. (Has, Have) the sandwiches or other refreshments been served yet? 5. Index cards or a small tablet (is, are) handy for taking notes. 6. Neither that clock nor my wristwatch (shows, show) the correct time. 7. One boy or girl (takes, take) the part of the narrator. 8. During our last visit to Jamaica, a map or a guidebook (was, were) my constant companion. 9. The dentist or her assistant (checks, check) my braces. 10. Either Japanese poetry or Inuit myths (is, are) going to be the focus of my report. Proofreading for Subject-Verb Agreement

Identify each verb that does not agree with its subject in the following sentences. Then, write the correct form of each verb. EXAMPLE

1. The players in the photograph on the next page is competing in the most popular sport in the world— soccer. 1. is—are

1. One expert in the field of sports have described soccer as the world’s favorite type of football. 1. has 2. Some sports writers has estimated that there are over thirty million registered soccer players around the globe. 2. have 3. Youth leagues and coaching clinics has helped make amateur soccer the fastest-growing team sport in the United States. 4. In Dallas, Texas, neither baseball nor American football 3. have attract as many young players as soccer does. 4. attracts Problems in Agreement

157

USAGE

5. Also, more colleges now has varsity soccer teams than have football teams. 5. have 6. This increase in soccer fans are a trend that started in 1967, when professional teams began playing in the United States. 7. Additional interest were generated when the U.S. Youth 6. is Soccer Association was formed. 7. was 8. Both males and females enjoys playing this sport. 8. enjoy 9. In fact, by the 1980s, many of the soccer teams in the country was women’s teams. 9. were 10. In the past, professional soccer were more popular abroad, but the United States hosted the World Cup in 1994. 10. was

Other Problems in Subject-Verb Agreement Reference Note For more information about collective nouns, see page 29.

158

Chapter 8

Agreement

8j. A collective noun may be either singular or plural, depending on its meaning in a sentence.

A collective noun is singular in form but names a group of persons, animals, or things.

8 j, k

Common Collective Nouns Animals

Things

audience

brood

batch

chorus

flock

bundle

committee

gaggle

cluster

crew

herd

collection

faculty

litter

fleet

family

pack

set

jury

pod

squadron

A collective noun takes a singular verb when the noun refers to the group as a unit. A collective noun takes a plural verb when the noun refers to the individual parts or members of the group. EXAMPLES

The class has decided to have a science fair in November. [The class as a unit has decided.] The class were divided in their opinions of the play. [The members of the class were divided in their opinions.] My family plans to attend Beth’s graduation. [The family as a unit plans to attend.] My family are coming from all over the state for the reunion. [The members of the family are coming.]

MEETING THE CHALLENGE Gaggle, pride, and brood—these words are examples of collective nouns. Choose five collective nouns, and look them up if you’re not sure what they refer to. Then, for each word, write a pair of sentences. In the first sentence, use the collective noun as a singular subject that refers to the group as a unit. In the second sentence, use the collective noun as a plural subject that refers to the individual parts of the group. Be sure to check your sentences for correct subject-verb agreement.

8k. When the subject follows the verb, find the subject and make sure that the verb agrees with it.

The subject usually follows the verb in questions and in sentences beginning with here or there. EXAMPLES

Where was the cat? Where were the cats? Does Jim know the Chens? Do the Chens know Jim? Here is my umbrella. Here are our umbrellas. There is a scary movie on TV. There are scary movies on TV.

Problems in Agreement

159

USAGE

People

NOTE

USAGE

When the subject of a sentence follows part or all of the verb, the word order is said to be inverted. To find the subject of a sentence with inverted order, restate the sentence in normal subjectverb word order.

Reference Note For more information about contractions, see page 333.

INVERTED NORMAL

Here are your gloves. Your gloves are here.

INVERTED NORMAL

Were you arriving late, too? You were arriving late, too.

INVERTED NORMAL

In the pond swim large goldfish. Large goldfish swim in the pond.

The contractions here’s, there’s, and where’s contain the verb is and should be used only with singular subjects. NONSTANDARD STANDARD STANDARD

Exercise 10

There’s our new neighbors. There’s our new neighbor. There are our new neighbors.

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the subject in each of the following sentences. Then, write the correct form of the verb in parentheses. EXAMPLE

1. That flock of geese (migrates, migrate) each year. 1. flock—migrates

1. There (is, are) at least two solutions to this complicated Chinese puzzle. 2. The soccer team (was, were) all getting on different buses. 3. (Is, Are) both of your parents from Korea? 4. Here (comes, come) the six members of the prom decorations committee. 5. Here (is, are) some apples and bananas for the picnic basket. 6. There (is, are) neither time nor money for that project. 7. (Here’s, Here are) the social studies notes I took. 8. At the press conference, there (was, were) several candidates for mayor and two for governor.

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8 l, m

9. The family (has, have) invited us over for a dinner to celebrate Grandma’s promotion. 10. Here (is, are) some masks carved by the Haida people. 8l. Some nouns that are plural in form take singular verbs. EXAMPLES

Electronics is a branch of physics. Civics is being taught by Ms. Gutierrez. Gymnastics is my favorite Olympic sport. The news was not encouraging.

USAGE

8m. An expression of an amount (a measurement, a percentage, or a fraction, for example) may be singular or plural, depending on how it is used.

A word or phrase stating an amount is singular when the amount is thought of as a unit. EXAMPLES

Fifteen dollars is enough for that CD. Sixteen ounces equals one pound. Is two weeks long enough for a hiking trip?

Sometimes, however, the amount is thought of as individual pieces or parts. If so, a plural verb is used. EXAMPLES

Ten of the dollars were borrowed. Two of the hours were spent at the theater.

A fraction or a percentage is singular when it refers to a singular word and plural when it refers to a plural word. EXAMPLES

One fourth of the salad is gone. Forty percent of the students are new.

NOTE

Expressions of measurement (such as length, weight, and area) are usually singular. EXAMPLES

Ten feet is the height of a regulation basketball hoop. Seventy-five pounds is the maximum baggage weight for this airline.

Problems in Agreement

161

8n. Even when plural in form, the title of a creative work (such as a book, song, film, or painting), the name of an organization, or the name of a country or city generally takes a singular verb. EXAMPLES

World Tales is a collection of folk tales retold by Idries Shah. [one book] Tonya’s painting Sunflowers was inspired by the natural beauty of rural Iowa. [one painting] Friends of the Earth was founded in 1969. [one organization]

USAGE

The Philippines is an island country in the southwest Pacific Ocean. [one country] Is Marble Falls a city in central Texas? [one city]

Exercise 11

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Identify the correct form of the verb in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Three inches in height (is, are) a great deal to grow in one year. 1. is

1. The Friends (is, are) a book about a girl from the West Indies and a girl from Harlem. 2. Two cups of broth (seems, seem) right for that recipe. 3. Fifteen feet (was, were) the length of the winning long jump. 4. Navarro and Company (is, are) selling those jackets. 5. The National Council of Teachers of English (is, are) holding its convention in our city this year. 6. Physics (is, are) the study of matter and energy. 7. Three hours of practice (is, are) not unusual for the band. 8. Arctic Dreams (was, were) written by Barry Lopez. 9. Two weeks of preparation (has, have) been enough. 10. A dollar and a half (is, are) the cost of a subway ride. 8o. Don’t and doesn’t should agree in number with their subjects.

The word don’t is a contraction of do not. Use don’t with plural subjects and with the pronouns I and you. 162

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EXAMPLES

8 n, o

The children don’t seem nervous. I don’t understand. Don’t you remember?

The word doesn’t is a contraction of does not. Use doesn’t with singular subjects except the pronouns I and you. EXAMPLES

Kim doesn’t ride the bus. He doesn’t play tennis. It doesn’t snow here.

Using Don’t and Doesn’t

USAGE

Oral Practice

Read the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized words. 1. My friend doesn’t understand the problem. 2. Doesn’t she want to play soccer? 3. The tomatoes don’t look ripe. 4. Our school doesn’t have a gymnasium. 5. Italy doesn’t border Germany. 6. The geese don’t hiss at Mr. Waverly. 7. Our Muslim neighbors, the Nassers, don’t eat pork. 8. He doesn’t play chess.

Review C

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

Write the verb form in parentheses that agrees with its subject. EXAMPLE

1. Wheelchairs with lifts (help, helps) many people. 1. help

1. Twenty-five cents (is, are) not enough to buy the Sunday newspaper. 2. Everyone in her family (prefers, prefer) to drink water. 3. Allen and his parents (enjoy, enjoys) basketball. 4. Jan (don’t, doesn’t) know the rules of volleyball. 5. Neither the cassette player nor the speakers (work, works) as well as we had hoped. 6. There (is, are) 132 islands in the state of Hawaii. 7. Many California place names (comes, come) from Spanish. Problems in Agreement

163

8. The principal or her assistant (is, are) the one who can help you. 9. Home economics (is, are) a required course in many schools. 10. A flock of sheep (was, were) grazing on the hill. Review D

Proofreading for Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Here is two pictures of Wang Yani and her artwork. 1. are

USAGE

1. There surely is few young artists as successful as Yani. 1. are 2. In fact, the People’s Republic of China regard her as a national treasure. 2. regards 3. She has shown her paintings throughout the world. 3. C 4. Yani don’t paint in just one style. 4. doesn’t 5. change 5. Her ideas and her art naturally changes over the years. 6. The painting below shows one of Yani’s favorite childhood subjects. 6. C 7. Many of her early paintings features monkeys. 7. feature 8. In fact, one of her large works portray 112 monkeys. 8. portrays 9. However, most of her later paintings is of landscapes, other animals, and people. 9. are 10. fills 10. As her smile suggests, Yani fill her paintings with energy. Wang Yani. Little Monkeys and Mummy. © Byron Preiss Visual Publications, Inc. & New China Pictures Company. Photograph: Zheng Zhensun © 1991. All rights reserved. Published by Scholastic, Inc.

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8 p

Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent A pronoun usually refers to a noun or another pronoun called its antecedent. Whenever you use a pronoun, make sure that it agrees with its antecedent.

Reference Note For more information on antecedents, see page 30.

8p. A pronoun should agree in number and gender with its antecedent.

Feminine

she

her

hers

herself

Masculine

him

his

himself

Neuter

its

itself

EXAMPLES

Carlotta said that she found her book.

The plant with mold on it is losing its leaves.

The antecedent of a pronoun can be another kind of pronoun. In such cases, you may need to look in a phrase that follows the antecedent to determine which personal pronoun to use. Each of the girls has offered her ideas. [Each is the antecedent of her. The word girls tells you to use the feminine pronoun her to refer to Each.] One of the men lost his keys. [One is the antecedent of his. The word men tells you to use the masculine pronoun his to refer to One.]

Some antecedents may be either masculine or feminine. In such cases, use both the masculine and the feminine forms. EXAMPLES

TIP

In conversation, people often use a plural personal pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent that may be either masculine or feminine. This nonstandard usage is becoming more common in writing, too. NONSTANDARD Everybody brought their swimsuit.

Aaron brought his skates with him.

EXAMPLES

STYLE

Every one of the parents praised his or her child’s efforts that day. No one in the senior play forgot his or her lines on opening night.

For now, however, it is best to follow the rules of standard usage in formal situations. STANDARD Everybody brought his or her swimsuit.

STYLE

TIP

To avoid the awkward use of his or her, try to rephrase the sentence. EXAMPLE Everybody brought his or her swimsuit. Everybody brought a swimsuit.

Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent

165

USAGE

Some singular pronouns have forms that indicate gender. Feminine pronouns refer to females. Masculine pronouns refer to males. Neuter pronouns refer to things (neither male nor female) and sometimes to animals.

8q. Use a singular pronoun to refer to anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, or something. EXAMPLES

Each of the snakes escaped from its cage. Someone in the class left behind his or her pencil.

8r. Use a plural pronoun to refer to both, few, many, or several. EXAMPLES

Both of the sailors asked their captain for shore leave.

USAGE

Many among the others waiting below deck hoped that they could go, too.

8s. The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some may be singular or plural, depending on how they are used in a sentence. EXAMPLES

All of the book is interesting, isn’t it? All of the books are interesting, aren’t they? None of the casserole is left; it was terrific! None of the casseroles are left; they were terrific!

STYLE

TIP

Sentences with singular antecedents joined by or or nor can sound awkward if the antecedents are of different genders. If a sentence sounds awkward, revise it to avoid the problem. AWKWARD Odessa or Raymond will bring her or his road map. REVISED Odessa will bring her road map, or Raymond will bring his.

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8t. Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by or or nor. EXAMPLES

Either Ralph or Carlos will display his baseball cards. Neither Nina nor Mary will bring her CD player.

8u. Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more antecedents joined by and. EXAMPLES

Isaac and Jerome told me that they were coming. Elena and Roberto sent letters to their cousin.

Exercise 12

Using Pronouns in Sentences

For each of the following sentences, write a pronoun or a pair of pronouns that will correctly complete the sentence.

1. David or Martin will show 1. his Answers may vary.

8 q–v

slides.

1. A writer should proofread work carefully. 1. his or her 2. One of the boys had finished homework. 2. his 3. No, Joyce has not given me answer. 3. her 4. The store sent Paula and Eric the posters that had ordered. 4. they 5. Mark or Hector will arrive early so that can help us. 5. he 6. Everyone will read one of poems aloud. 6. his or her 7. One of the students raised hand. 7. his or her 8. of the tennis rackets were damaged by the water leak. 8. Many 9. The hamsters had eaten none of food. 9. their 10. Each of the dogs ate the scraps that we gave . 10. it 11. The principal and the Spanish teacher announced plans for the Cinco de Mayo fiesta. 11. their 12. All of the bowling pins were on sides. 12. their 13. The movie made sense to of the audience members. 13. none 14. Everyone in my class has own writer’s journal.14. his or her 15. Neither recalled the name of first-grade teacher.15. his or 16. of the players, Sharon and P. J., agreed that the game her was a draw.16. Each 17. Ms. Levine said was proud of the students. 17. she 18. Frank had tried on all of the hats before chose one. 18. he 19. Anyone may join if collects stamps. 19. he or she 20. Either Vanessa or Marilyn was honored for design. 20. her

COM P U T E R T I P Using indefinite pronouns correctly can be tricky. To help yourself, you may want to create an indefinite pronoun guide. First, summarize the information in Rules 8d–8f and 8q–8s. Then, choose several examples to illustrate the rules. If you use a computer, you can create a Help file in which to store this information. Call up your Help file whenever you run into difficulty with indefinite pronouns in your writing. If you don’t use a computer, you can keep your guide in a writing notebook.

8v. A pronoun that refers to a collective noun has the same number as the noun.

A collective noun is singular when it refers to the group as a unit and plural when it refers to the individual members of the group. EXAMPLES

The cast is giving its final performance tonight. [The cast as a unit is giving its final performance.] The cast are trying on their costumes. [The members of the cast are trying on their individual costumes.] The faculty has prepared its report. [The faculty as a unit has prepared its report.] The faculty are returning to their classrooms. [The members of the faculty are returning to their separate classrooms.]

Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent

167

USAGE

EXAMPLE

8w. An expression of an amount may take a singular or plural pronoun, depending on how the expression is used. EXAMPLES

Five dollars is all I need. I hope my sister will lend it to me. [The amount is thought of as a unit.] Two dollars are torn. The vending machine won’t take them. [The amount is thought of as individual pieces or parts.]

8x. Even when plural in form, the title of a creative work (such as a book, song, film, or painting), the name of an organization, or the name of a country or city usually takes a singular pronoun. USAGE

EXAMPLES

Have you read Great Expectations? It is on our summer reading list. The United Nations, which has its headquarters in New York, also has offices in Geneva and Vienna. My grandmother, who is from the Maldives, told us of its coral reefs and lagoons.

Exercise 13

Choosing Pronouns That Agree with Their Antecedents

Choose the correct word or words in parentheses in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Even a trio can have a big sound if (it, they) can arrange the score properly. 1. it

1. They are asking two hundred dollars, but (it, they) should be a lower price because there is no chair with the desk. 2. Darla, The Hero and the Crown has been checked out; however, (it, they) should be back next Wednesday. 3. If the high school band doesn’t show up soon, (it, they) won’t lead the parade. 4. These plans call for ten feet of African ebony, and although (it, they) would look great, I have no idea where we could even find ebony. 5. Seven points may not seem like much, but in jai alai, (it, they) can be enough to decide the game. 6. The cavalry unit took up (its, their) position on the hill. 168

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8 w, x

Review E

USAGE

7. “Sixteen Tons” has always been one of my favorite songs, and (it, they) always will be. 8. Six of the sales teams exceeded (its, their) goals. 9. Will the board of directors alter (its, their) decision? 10. Try Harper Brothers Appliances first; if (it, they) happens to be closed, go up the street to Smith’s Hardware.

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Most of the following sentences contain errors in pronounantecedent agreement. Identify each error, and write the correct pronoun or pronouns. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. At the meeting, each member of the Small Business Council spoke about their concerns. 1. their—his or her

1. Everybody had a chance to express their opinion about the new shopping mall. 1. his or her 2. Mrs. Gomez and Mr. Franklin are happy about his or her new business locations at the mall. 2. their 3. their 3. Both said that his or her profits have increased significantly. 4. Neither Mr. Chen nor Mr. Cooper, however, feels that his or her customers can find convenient parking. 5. Anyone shopping at the mall has to park their car too far from the main shopping area. 5. his or her 6. Several members of the council said that the mall has taken away many of their customers. 6. C 7. One of the women on the council then presented their idea about creating a farmers’ market on weekends. 7. her Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent

169

8. Many members said he or she favored the plan, and a proposal was discussed. 8. they 9. his or her 9. Each farmer could have their own spot near the town hall. 10. The Small Business Council then agreed to take their proposal to the mayor. 10. its

Review F

USAGE

HELP Not every sentence in Review F needs to have a pronoun that agrees with the subject.

Writing Sentences That Demonstrate Correct Subject-Verb and PronounAntecedent Agreement

Using the following words or word groups as subjects, write twenty sentences. In each sentence, underline the verb that agrees with the subject. Then, underline twice any pronoun that agrees with the subject. EXAMPLE

1. all of the players 1. All of the players were tired; they had had a long practice.

1. both Jed and Bob 2. none of the puppies 3. Los Angeles 4. fifty cents 5. Anne of Green Gables 6. news 7. either the teacher or the students 8. the litter of kittens 9. neither Nancy nor Tim 10. everyone

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11. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer 12. the football team 13. each of the chairs 14. athletics 15. the Masters tournament 16. few armadillos 17. most of the apple 18. several days 19. any of the orange juice 20. none of the pizza

CHAPTER

Chapter Review A. Determining Subject and Verb Agreement

1. [8a, b(2)] 2. [8a, b(1)] 3. [8o, k] 4. [8a, c, b(1)] 5. [8l] 6. [8e, b(2)] 7. [8d, b(1)] 8. [8m] 9. [8g, b(1)] 10. [8k, b(2)] 11. [8d, b(1)] 12. [8k, a, b(2)] 13. [8f] 14. [8i] 15. [8k, e, b(2)] 16. [8g, b(2)] 17. [8n, b(1)] 18. [8k, b(2)] 19. [8j] 20. [8f] 21. [8l] 22. [8n] 23. [8d, b(1)] 24. [8f] 25. [8h, b(1)]

Identify the correct form of.the verb given in parentheses in each of the following sentences. Base your answers on the rules of standard, formal usage. 1. Elephants (has, have) worked with people for centuries. 2. A blue vase (is, are) the only thing on the shelf. 3. (Doesn’t, Don’t) Midori come here every afternoon? 4. The exhibit of drawings by John James Audubon (was, were) USAGE

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

fascinating, don’t you think? 5. Civics (was, were) only one of the classes that challenged me. 6. Since Mom repaired them, both of the radios (work, works). 7. Everyone (calls, call) Latisha by her nickname, Tish. 8. Fifty cents (was, were) a lot of money in 1910! 9. Ms. Sakata’s former neighbor and best friend, Ms. Chang, (writes, write) poetry. 10. (Is, Are) there any other blacksmiths in town? 11. I’m sorry, but somebody (has, have) checked out that book. 12. (Was, Were) the geese in the cornfield again? 13. All of the shells in my collection (was, were) displayed. 14. Neither Cindy nor her cousins (knows, know) how to sew. 15. Outside the back door (is, are) a few of your friends. 16. My brother and my uncles (plays, play) rugby. 17. The Netherlands (has, have) a coastline on the North Sea. 18. Here (is, are) several subjects for you to consider. 19. The team (has, have) all received their jerseys and hats. 20. Some of Ernest Hemingway’s writings (was, were) autobiographical. 21. This news (was, were) just what Barb wanted to hear. 22. Giants of Jazz (is, are) an interesting book. 23. Everyone (is, are) expected to attend. 24. Most of our reading (was, were) done on weekends. 25. Either Gordon or Ruben (knows, know) the right answer.

Chapter Review

171

B. Determining Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement If the italicized pronoun in each of the following sentences does not agree with its antecedent, write the correct form of the pronoun. If the pronoun does agree with its antecedent, write C. Base your answers on the rules of standard, formal usage.

USAGE

26. [8q, p] 27. [8t, p] 28. [8u, p] 29. [8r, p] 30. [8q, p] 31. [8x, p] 32. [8s, p] 33. [8t, p] 34. [8q, p] 35. [8p] 36. [8q, p] 37. [8w, p] 38. [8t, p] 39. [8q, p] 40. [8v, p]

26. Everyone put their suitcases on the bus. 26. his or her 27. Either Marcia or Christina will bring her serving platter

to the dinner party. 27. C 28. Both Sarah and Sue agreed with her counselor. 28. their 29. Several of my friends do his or her homework after school. 29. their 30. One of the boys used their bat in the game. 30. his 31. My grandfather’s favorite television show is The 31. it Honeymooners. He watches them every night on cable. 32. All of the horses received its vaccinations. 32. their 33. Either Maria or Louise will receive their award today. 33. her 34. Everybody should know their ZIP Code. 34. his or her 35. Each student in the class has given their report on an African American folk tale. 35. his or her 36. Every one of the dogs obeyed its owner. 36. C 37. I found twenty dollars in my sock drawer. Do you think I should spend them on Christmas presents? 37. it 38. Will either Hector or Tony read his paper aloud? 38. C 39. Not one of the students had finished their science project on time this semester. 39. his or her 40. After Celia finished her solo, the audience roared their approval for five minutes. 40. its

Writing Application Using Agreement in a Composition Subject-Verb Agreement If you could be any person in history, who would you be? Why? Answer these questions in a short composition. Be sure to use correct subject-verb agreement in explaining your choice.

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Prewriting First, decide what historical person you would like to be, and freewrite about that person. As you write, think about why the person is noteworthy and why you would want to be him or her. Writing Use your freewriting ideas to write your first draft. Begin with a sentence that states the purpose of your composition and identifies your historical figure. Then, give your main reasons for wanting to be that person. Summarize your main points in a conclusion.

USAGE

Revising Read through your composition, and then answer these questions: (1) Is it clear what person from history I want to be? If not, revise your main idea statement. (2) Is it clear why I want to be that person? If not, explain your reasons in more detail. Publishing Make sure that all subjects and verbs agree in number. Check your composition for errors in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. Your class may want to create a display using the compositions and pictures of the historical figures chosen.

Chapter Review

173

CHAPTER

Using Verbs Correctly Principal Parts, Regular and Irregular Verbs, Tense, Voice

Diagnostic Preview Terms and numerals in brackets refer to concepts and rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview.

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Verb Forms If a sentence contains an incorrect past or past participle form of a verb, write the correct form. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1.–20. [9c] 1. swam 2. came 3. sat [sit, set] 4. C 5. saw 6. C [rise, raise] 7. gone 8. shrunk 9. risen [rise, raise] 10. written 11. threw 12. spoken

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1. Melissa drunk the medicine in one gulp. 1. drank

1. We swum in the lake last weekend. 2. Carlos come from the Dominican Republic. 3. The crow just set there on the wire fence. 4. The balloon burst with a loud pop. 5. I seen that magician on television. 6. The leader raised his tambourine to begin the dance. 7. You should have went with Thomas to the game. 8. The ice cube has shrinked to half its original size. 9. Meanwhile, the water level has rose. 10. I would have wrote to you much sooner, but I lost your new address. 11. Sandra throwed the ball to the shortstop. 12. Ms. Lopez has spoke before many civic groups.

Using Verbs Correctly

13. All of these photographs were taken in Florida’s Everglades National Park. 14. The bell has rang for fourth period. 15. While visiting Los Angeles last August, I run into an old friend in the city’s Little Tokyo district. 16. I laid down under a tree to rest. 17. I done everything asked of me. 18. It begun to rain shortly after dusk. 19. Some of the saucers were broken. 20. Sue lay her pen down and studied the question again.

13. C 14. rung 15. ran 16. lay [lie, lay] 17. did 18. began 19. C 20. laid [lie, lay]

9 a

USAGE

Principal Parts of Verbs The four basic forms of a verb are called the principal parts of the verb. 9a. The principal parts of a verb are the base form, the present participle, the past, and the past participle.

When they are used to form tenses, the present participle and the past participle forms require helping verbs (forms of be and have). Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

talk

[is] talking

talked

[have] talked

draw

[is] drawing

drew

[have] drawn

Because talk forms its past and past participle by adding –ed, it is called a regular verb. Draw forms its past and past participle differently, so it is called an irregular verb. The principal parts of a verb are used to express time. PRESENT TIME

PAST TIME

FUTURE TIME

He draws excellent pictures. Susan is drawing one now.

HELP Some teachers refer to the base form as the infinitive. Follow your teacher’s directions when you are labeling this form.

Reference Note For information on participles used as adjectives, see page 98. For information on helping verbs, see page 49.

Last week they drew two maps. She has often drawn cartoons. Perhaps she will draw one for you. By Thursday, we will have drawn two more. Principal Parts of Verbs

175

Regular Verbs HELP Most regular verbs that end in e drop the e before adding –ing. Some regular verbs double the final consonant before adding –ing or –ed.

Reference Note For more about spelling rules, see Chapter 16. For information on standard and nonstandard English, see page 245.

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

clean

[is] cleaning

cleaned

[have] cleaned

hope

[is] hoping

hoped

[have] hoped

inspect

[is] inspecting

inspected

[have] inspected

slip

[is] slipping

slipped

[have] slipped

One common error in forming the past or the past participle of a regular verb is to leave off the –d or –ed ending. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

Our street use to be quieter. Our street used to be quieter.

Another common error is to add unnecessary letters. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

The swimmer almost drownded in the riptide. The swimmer almost drowned in the riptide.

NONSTANDARD STANDARD

The kitten attackted that paper bag. The kitten attacked that paper bag.

Oral Practice 1

Using Regular Verbs

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized verbs. 1. We are supposed to meet at the track after school. 2. The twins happened to buy the same shirt. 3. They have already called me about the party. 4. Do you know who used to live in this house? 5. I had hoped they could go to the concert with us.

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USAGE

EXAMPLES shake—shaking hug—hugged

9b. A regular verb forms its past and past participle by adding –d or –ed to the base form.

9 b

6. The chairs have been moved into the hall for the dance. 7. That salesclerk has helped my mother before. 8. Eli may not have looked under the table for the cat. Exercise 1

Writing the Forms of Regular Verbs

Write the correct present participle, past, or past participle form of the italicized verb given before each of the following sentences. EXAMPLES

1. learn

Many people today are from a variety of countries.

folk dances

1. learning Dad and I had to take lessons in folk dancing this summer.

USAGE

2. hope 2. hoped

1. practice

These Spanish folk dancers must have for a long time. 2. perform Notice that they are in their colorful native costumes. 3. wish Have you ever that you knew how to do any folk dances? 4. use Virginia reels to be popular dances in the United States. 5. promise Mrs. Stamos, who is from Greece, to teach her daughter the Greek chain dance. 6. lean The young Jamaican dancer backward before he went under the pole during the limbo dance competition. 7. start The group from Estonia is a dance about a spinning wheel. 8. request Someone in the audience has an Irish square dance called “Sweets of May.” 9. dance During the Mexican hat dance, the woman around the brim of the sombrero. 10. fill The Jewish wedding dance the room with both music and movement. Principal Parts of Verbs

177

Irregular Verbs HELP

USAGE

If you are not sure about the principal parts of a verb, look in a dictionary. Entries for irregular verbs list the principal parts of the verb. If the principal parts are not given, the verb is a regular verb.

9c. An irregular verb forms its past and past participle in some way other than by adding –d or –ed to the base form.

Irregular verbs form their past and past participle in various ways:

• by changing vowels Base Form

Past

Past Participle

sing

sang

[have] sung

become

became

[have] become

drink

drank

[have] drunk

• by changing consonants Base Form

Past

Past Participle

make

made

[have] made

build

built

[have] built

lend

lent

[have] lent

• by changing vowels and consonants Base Form

Past

Past Participle

did

[have] done

went

[have] gone

buy

bought

[have] bought

Base Form

Past

Past Participle

hurt

[have] hurt

put

[have] put

let

[have] let

• by making no changes

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Using Verbs Correctly

9 c

Common Irregular Verbs Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

begin

[is] beginning

began

[have] begun

bite

[is] biting

bit

[have] bitten

blow

[is] blowing

blew

[have] blown

break

[is] breaking

broke

[have] broken

bring

[is] bringing

brought

[have] brought

build

[is] building

built

[have] built

burst

[is] bursting

burst

[have] burst

buy

[is] buying

bought

[have] bought

catch

[is] catching

caught

[have] caught

choose

[is] choosing

chose

[have] chosen

come

[is] coming

came

[have] come

cost

[is] costing

cost

[have] cost

cut

[is] cutting

cut

[have] cut

[is] doing

did

[have] done

draw

[is] drawing

drew

[have] drawn

drink

[is] drinking

drank

[have] drunk

drive

[is] driving

drove

[have] driven

eat

[is] eating

ate

[have] eaten

fall

[is] falling

fell

[have] fallen

feel

[is] feeling

felt

[have] felt

fight

[is] fighting

fought

[have] fought

find

[is] finding

found

[have] found

fly

[is] flying

flew

[have] flown

forgive

[is] forgiving

forgave

[have] forgiven

freeze

[is] freezing

froze

[have] frozen

get

[is] getting

got

[have] got

USAGE

or bit

or gotten give

[is] giving

gave

[have] given

[is] going

went

[have] gone

grow

[is] growing

grew

[have] grown (continued)

Principal Parts of Verbs

179

(continued)

Common Irregular Verbs Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

have

[is] having

had

[have] had

hear

[is] hearing

heard

[have] heard

hide

[is] hiding

hid

[have] hid

USAGE

or hidden hit

[is] hitting

hit

[have] hit

hold

[is] holding

held

[have] held

know

[is] knowing

knew

[have] known

lead

[is] leading

led

[have] led

Oral Practice 2

Using Irregular Verbs

Read the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Edward’s sister drove him to the mall this afternoon. My parents came to the spelling bee last year. I should have known the test would be difficult. He’s going to Cape Canaveral this summer. Maya has been chosen to play on our team. The water pipe burst during the ice storm. Did you see the northern lights last night? Wyatt brought his new computer game to the party at Alexander’s house.

Exercise 2

Writing the Past and Past Participle Forms of Irregular Verbs

Write the correct past or past participle form of the italicized verb given before each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

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1. drove

1. drive

2. began

2. begin

Using Verbs Correctly

1. choose Sara has her song for next month’s piano recital. 1. chosen

Last summer we to Denver, where we visited the U.S. Mint. The concert an hour ago.

4. blow 5. get 6. fall 7. do 8. drink 9. build 10. go 11. bite 12. grow 13. catch 14. give 15. eat 16. feel 17. cost 18. buy 19. find 20. freeze

Mike Powell the world long-jump record by jumping 29 feet 41/2 inches. The wind has the tent down. We tickets to ride The Silverton. The leaves have from the trees. Kate her best, and she got a promotion. According to legend, the Aztec emperor Montezuma chocolate. People in Africa large cities hundreds, even thousands, of years ago. You’ve never to Puerto Rico, have you? I think that Roseanne into a green chile! Well, nephew, you surely have ! You look like you just the brass ring! Mom had already us a color copy of her grandmother’s journal. The Japanese have box lunches, too, but they call them obentos; we have them several times. They better after taking a short nap. Those tickets shouldn’t have so much. Have you ever a Greek sandwich called a gyro? My cousin said that she has a new canyon trail. The pond last winter, and we went skating.

3. broke 4. blown 5. got 6. fallen 7. did 8. drank 9. built 10. gone 11. bit 12. grown 13. caught 14. given

USAGE

3. break

15. eaten 16. felt 17. cost 18. bought 19. found 20. froze HELP

More Common Irregular Verbs Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

leave

[is] leaving

left

[have] left

lend

[is] lending

lent

[have] lent

let

[is] letting

let

[have] let

light

[is] lighting

lighted or lit

[have] lighted

or lit

lose

[is] losing

lost

[have] lost

make

[is] making

made

[have] made

meet

[is] meeting

met

[have] met

pay

[is] paying

paid

[have] paid (continued)

Some verbs have two correct past or past participle forms. However, these forms are not always interchangeable. EXAMPLES I shone the flashlight into the woods. [Shined also would be correct in this usage.] I shined my shoes. [Shone would be incorrect in this usage.] If you are unsure about which past participle form to use, check an up-to-date dictionary.

Principal Parts of Verbs

181

(continued)

USAGE

More Common Irregular Verbs

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Chapter 9

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

put

[is] putting

put

[have] put

read

[is] reading

read

[have] read

ride

[is] riding

rode

[have] ridden

ring

[is] ringing

rang

[have] rung

run

[is] running

ran

[have] run

say

[is] saying

said

[have] said

see

[is] seeing

saw

[have] seen

seek

[is] seeking

sought

[have] sought

sell

[is] selling

sold

[have] sold

send

[is] sending

sent

[have] sent

shrink

[is] shrinking

shrank or shrunk

[have] shrunk

sing

[is] singing

sang

[have] sung

sink

[is] sinking

sank or sunk

[have] sunk

speak

[is] speaking

spoke

[have] spoken

spend

[is] spending

spent

[have] spent

stand

[is] standing

stood

[have] stood

steal

[is] stealing

stole

[have] stolen

swim

[is] swimming

swam

[have] swum

swing

[is] swinging

swung

[have] swung

take

[is] taking

took

[have] taken

teach

[is] teaching

taught

[have] taught

tear

[is] tearing

tore

[have] torn

tell

[is] telling

told

[have] told

think

[is] thinking

thought

[have] thought

throw

[is] throwing

threw

[have] thrown

wear

[is] wearing

wore

[have] worn

win

[is] winning

won

[have] won

write

[is] writing

wrote

[have] written

Using Verbs Correctly

Oral Practice 3

Using Irregular Verbs

Read the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized verbs.

Exercise 3

USAGE

1. When the bell rang, we hurried out of the building. 2. The audience was quiet as the acrobats swung from the trapeze. 3. That dress had already shrunk before I washed it. 4. Otherwise, Lily would have worn it to the dance. 5. Have you met the new foreign exchange student? 6. We were late to the picnic because I lost the map. 7. My father lent me the money to buy a new watch. 8. Did you know that Rachel took singing lessons?

Writing the Past and Past Participle Forms of Irregular Verbs

Write the correct past or past participle form of the italicized verb given before each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. run 2. sell 3. speak 4. win 5. write 6. ride 7. sing 8. throw 9. swim 10. sink 11. send

1. see 1. seen

I have

that movie twice already.

Michael the 100-meter dash in excellent time. My aunt has more houses than any other real estate agent in the city. The director of the state health department to our class today. The Mexican poet Octavio Paz the Nobel Prize in literature. I have some poems, but I am shy about showing them to anyone. Tamisha’s whole family mules to the bottom of the Grand Canyon. At the concert, the group my favorite song. Someone must have this trash from a car. Within minutes, the two beautiful swans had across the lake. King Arthur’s sword Excalibur had slowly to the bottom of the lake. My aunt in South America me a fabulous sweater made from the wool of an alpaca, which is an animal similar to a llama.

1. ran 2. sold 3. spoke 4. won 5. written 6. rode 7. sang 8. thrown 9. swum 10. sunk 11. sent

Principal Parts of Verbs

183

USAGE

12. told

12. tell

13. lent

13. lend

14. worn

14. wear

15. swam

15. swim

16. rung

16. ring

17. lost

17. lose

18. taken

18. take

19. sung

19. sing

20. said

20. say

Mr. Noguchi us that R.S.V.P. at the bottom of an invitation means that you should let the host know whether you are coming or not. Before the softball game, my friend Gabriela me her glove. Shouldn’t you have a warmer jacket for the hike this morning? Soon-hee, who is training for a triathlon, two miles on Saturday. I have the doorbell several times, but no one has come to the door. The swan many large feathers; Tony said it must be molting. It has over ten minutes to locate the missing glasses. Gerald, Annie, and Trish have the national anthem at assembly. The weather forecast this morning to expect snow flurries.

Review A

Writing the Past and Past Participle Forms of Irregular Verbs

Write the correct past or past participle form of the italicized verb given before each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. tell

Has Alameda you about the book The Indian Tipi: Its History, Construction, and Use?

1. told

1. write 2. build 3. stand 4. see 5. make 6. come

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Using Verbs Correctly

Reginald and Gladys Laubin that book and others about American Indian culture. 1. wrote The Laubins their own tepee. 2. built Tepees of various sizes once all across the Great Plains. 3. stood I have pictures of camps full of beautifully decorated tepees. 4. seen For many years, American Indians have tepees out of cloth rather than buffalo hides. 5. made The word tepee, or tipi, has into English from the Sioux language. 6. come

8. take

9. know 10. do

On the outside of their tepees, the Sioux and Cheyenne peoples designs like the ones shown on the previous page. 7. drew Because the Plains Indians followed animal herds, they needed shelter that could be easily from place to place. 8. taken Even before reading the book, I that the inside of a tepee cover was rarely painted. 9. knew Traditionally, women all the work of making tepees and putting them up. 10. did

Review B

Writing the Past and Past Participle Forms of Irregular Verbs

USAGE

7. draw

Write the correct past or past participle form of the italicized verb given before each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. blow 2. break 3. bring 4. burst 5. choose 6. come 7. do 8. drink 9. fall 10. freeze 11. go 12. know 13. ring 14. run 15. see 16. shrink 17. speak 18. swim

1. write 1. wrote

a report on Jim Thorpe.

Yesterday the wind the leaves into our yard. My pen pal from Australia has never his promise to write once a week. I the wrong book to class. The children almost with excitement. The director James Earl Jones for the role. My aunt and her friend to dinner last night. I have always my homework right after supper. The guests fruit punch and lemonade. One of Julian’s Russian nesting dolls has off the shelf. Has the pond yet? We have never to see the Parthenon in Nashville. Had I , I would have called you sooner. Suddenly the fire alarm . Joan Samuelson certainly a good race. I you in line at the movies. The apples we dried in the sun have . After we had to George and Marc, we decided to play dominoes. We out to the float and back.

1. blew 2. broken 3. brought 4. burst 5. chose 6. came 7. done 8. drank 9. fallen 10. frozen 11. gone 12. known 13. rang 14. ran 15. saw 16. shrunk 17. spoken 18. swam

Principal Parts of Verbs

185

19. written 20. thrown

19. write 20. throw

She has me several long letters. You shouldn’t have the ball to second base.

Tense 9d. The tense of a verb indicates the time of the action or of the state of being that is expressed by the verb. EXAMPLES

Yesterday, Denise served lox and bagels for breakfast. Randy has played bass guitar for the band, but now he plays drums.

USAGE

Once they have painted the signs, Jill and Cody will finish the decorations for the dance.

Verbs in English have six tenses. Present

Past

Future

Present Perfect

Past Perfect

Future Perfect

The following time line shows the relationship between the six tenses. Past existing or happening in the past

Past Perfect existing or happening before a specific time in the past

Present existing or happening now

Present Perfect existing or happening sometime before now; may be continuing now

Future existing or happening in the future

Future Perfect existing or happening before a specific time in the future

Listing the different forms of a verb is called conjugating the verb. 186

Chapter 9

Using Verbs Correctly

9 d

Conjugation of the Verb See Present Tense Singular I see

Plural we see

you see

he, she, or it sees

they see

Singular I saw

Plural we saw

you saw

he, she, or it saw

they saw

USAGE

Past Tense

Future Tense Singular I will (shall) see

Plural we will (shall) see

you will (shall) see

he, she, or it will (shall) see

they will (shall) see

Present Perfect Tense Singular I have seen

Plural we have seen

you have seen

he, she, or it has seen

they have seen

STYLE

TIP

Traditionally, the helping verbs shall and will were used to mean different things. Now, however, shall can be used almost interchangeably with will.

Past Perfect Tense Singular I had seen

Plural we had seen

you had seen

he, she, or it had seen

they had seen

Future Perfect Tense Singular I will (shall) have seen you will (shall) have seen he, she, or it will (shall) have seen

Plural we will (shall) have seen you will (shall) have seen they will (shall) have seen

Tense

187

NOTE

HELP The progressive form is not a separate tense but an additional form of each of the six tenses.

Each tense has an additional form called the progressive form, which expresses continuing action or state of being. In each tense, the progressive form of a verb consists of the appropriate tense of be plus the verb’s present participle.

Present Progressive Past Progressive Future Progressive Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive Future Perfect Progressive

am, is, are seeing was, were seeing will (shall) be seeing has been seeing, have been seeing had been seeing will (shall) have been seeing

USAGE

Consistency of Tense 9e. Do not change needlessly from one tense to another.

When writing about events that take place at the same time, use verbs that are in the same tense. When writing about events that occur at different times, use verbs that are in different tenses. INCONSISTENT

CONSISTENT CONSISTENT

Exercise 4 HELP When you rewrite Exercise 4, either tense is correct, as long as you are consistent.

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Chapter 9

When we go to the movies, we bought some popcorn. [The events occur at the same time, but go is in the present tense and bought is in the past tense.] When we go to the movies, we buy some popcorn. [Both go and buy are in the present tense.] When we went to the movies, we bought some popcorn. [Both went and bought are in the past tense.]

Making Tenses of Verbs Consistent

Read the following sentences, and choose whether to rewrite them in the present or past tense. Then, rewrite the sentences, changing the verb forms to correct any needless changes. EXAMPLE

Using Verbs Correctly

[1] I picked up the telephone receiver quickly, but the line is still dead. 1. I picked up the telephone receiver quickly, but the line was still dead. or I pick up the telephone receiver quickly, but the line is still dead.

Active and Passive Voice A verb in the active voice expresses an action done by its subject. A verb in the passive voice expresses an action done to its subject. In passive voice, the verb phrase always includes a form of be and the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs may also be included. Compare the following sentences: ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Exercise 5

For more about helping verbs, see page 49.

The pilot instructed us. [The subject, pilot, performs the action.] We were instructed by the pilot. [The subject, We, receives the action.] Alice caught a fly ball. [The subject, Alice, performs the action.] A fly ball was caught by Alice. [The subject, ball, receives the action.] The firefighters have put out the blaze. [The subject, firefighters, performs the action.] The blaze has been put out by the firefighters. [The subject, blaze, receives the action.]

Identifying Active and Passive Voice

Tell whether the verb is in the active voice or passive voice in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

Reference Note

1. The 10K race was won by Mikki. 1. passive voice

STYLE

TIP

In general, you should avoid using the passive voice because it can make your writing sound weak and awkward. Using the active voice helps make your writing direct and forceful. PASSIVE VOICE A no-hitter was pitched by Valerie, and the game was won by her team. ACTIVE VOICE Valerie pitched a nohitter, and her team won the game.

Active and Passive Voice

189

USAGE

9 e

[1] Lightning struck our house, and I run straight for cover. [2] “Oh, no!” I exclaim. [3] The electricity was out! [4] My parents get out the flashlights, and we played a game. [5] Later, since the stove, oven, and microwave didn’t work without electricity, we have a cold supper in the living room—picnic style! [6] My younger brother asks me what lightning is. [7] “Lightning is a big spark of electricity from a thundercloud,” I tell him. [8] He nods. [9] I started to tell him about positive and negative charges creating lightning, but he doesn’t understand what I’m talking about and walks away. [10] In the morning, we were all glad when the sun shone and our electricity is on again.

USAGE

1. active 2. passive 3. passive 4. active 5. passive 6. passive 7. active 8. active 9. passive 10. passive

1. On Sunday afternoon we painted the den. 2. Brianne was elected to the student council. 3. The CD has been misplaced by my cousin. 4. The new animation software creates vivid images. 5. Many of the yearbook photos were taken by Adrienne. 6. Shoddy work was done on the building. 7. Mike and I don’t understand this algebra problem. 8. I am unloading the food and supplies at the campsite. 9. The tickets had been sold months before the concert. 10. Andre was awarded the certificate for his service to the community.

Six Troublesome Verbs Sit and Set STYLE

TIP

You may know that the word set has more meanings than the two given here. Check in a dictionary to see if the meaning you intend requires an object.

The verb sit means “to be seated” or “to rest.” Sit seldom takes an object. The verb set usually means “to place (something somewhere)” or “to put (something somewhere).” Set usually takes an object. Notice that set has the same form for the base form, past, and past participle.

EXAMPLE The sun sets in the West. [Here, sets does not take an object.]

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

sit

[is] sitting

sat

[have] sat

set

[is] setting

set

[have] set

EXAMPLES

Who is sitting on the blanket by the pool? [no object] Theresa is setting the lawn chairs by the pool. [Theresa is setting what? Chairs is the object.] Three boys sat on the platform. [no object] The boys set the instruments on the platform. [The boys set what? Instruments is the object.] We had sat on the pier for an hour before Suzanne arrived with the bait. [no object] I had set the bucket of bait on the pier. [I had set what? Bucket is the object.]

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Using Verbs Correctly

Oral Practice 4

Using the Forms of Sit and Set Correctly

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized verbs.

Exercise 6

USAGE

1. Darnell and I sat down to play a game of chess. 2. After we had been sitting for a while, he decided to make bread. 3. I set the pan on the table. 4. After Darnell had set out the ingredients, he mixed them. 5. We returned to our game but could not sit still for long. 6. We had not set the pan in the oven. 7. Then, we almost sat too long. 8. If the bread had sat in the oven much longer, it would have burned. Writing the Forms of Sit and Set Correctly

Write the correct form of.sit or set for each blank in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. I 1. set

my suitcase on the rack.

1. On the train, I next to a woman wearing a shawl. 2. She a large covered basket on the floor by her feet. 3. When the conductor asked her if she would like to it in the baggage rack, she refused. 4. She insisted that the basket must by her feet. 5. As I beside her, I wondered what was in the basket. 6. I my book down and tried to see inside the tightly woven basket. 7. Perhaps I was next to a woman with a picnic lunch. 8. Maybe she had next to me because I looked hungry. 9. As the woman her packages down, I watched the basket. 10. A sudden movement of the train caused the basket to open, and inside it a small, white rabbit.

1. sat 2. set 3. set 4. sit 5. sat 6. set 7. sitting 8. sat 9. set 10. sat

Rise and Raise The verb rise means “to move upward” or “to go up.” Rise does not take an object. The verb raise means “to lift (something) up.” Raise usually takes an object. Six Troublesome Verbs

191

STYLE

TIP

You may know that the verb raise has more meanings than the one given here. EXAMPLE The Nelsons raise geese. [Raise does not mean “lift up” here, but it still takes an object.]

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

rise

[is] rising

rose

[have] risen

raise

[is] raising

raised

[have] raised

EXAMPLES

The fans were rising to sing the national anthem. [no object] Fans were raising signs and banners. [Fans were raising what? Signs and banners are the objects.]

USAGE

The student rose to ask a question. [no object] The student raised a good question. [The student raised what? Question is the object.] Prices had risen. [no object] The store had raised prices. [The store had raised what? Prices is the object.]

Oral Practice 5

Using Forms of Rise and Raise Correctly

Read the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Mount Everest rises over 29,000 feet. He raises the flag at sunrise. The TV reporter raised her voice to be heard. She rose from her seat and looked out the window. The constellation Orion had not yet risen in the southern sky. They had raised the piñata high in the tree. I hope the bread is rising. He will be raising the bucket from the well.

Exercise 7

Identifying the Correct Forms of Rise and Raise

Identify the correct verb of the two given in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. After the storm, Diana (rose, raised) the window. 1. raised

1. The entire audience quickly (rose, raised) to their feet to sing the “Hallelujah Chorus.”

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MEETING THE CHALLENGE Write a poem, correctly using each of the six troublesome verbs, sit, set, rise, raise, lie, and lay. Be sure to check your poem for correct usage of the troublesome verbs.

USAGE

2. They used a jack to (rise, raise) the car so that they could change the tire. 3. The fire juggler is (rising, raising) two flaming batons over his head to signal the start of the show. 4. Some people have trouble remembering that the sun always (rises, raises) in the east. 5. He gently (rose, raised) the injured duckling from the lake. 6. Only half of Mauna Kea, a volcano on the island of Hawaii, (rises, raises) above the ocean. 7. The proud winner has (risen, raised) her trophy so that everyone can see it. 8. The wedding guests have (risen, raised) from their seats to see the bride enter. 9. Yeast makes the dough for pizza and other baked goods, such as bread and rolls, (rise, raise). 10. They will (rise, raise) the couch while I look under it.

Lie and Lay The verb lie generally means “to recline,” “to be in a place,” or “to remain lying down.” Lie does not take an object. The verb lay generally means “to put (something) down” or “to place (something somewhere).” Lay usually takes an object.

STYLE

TIP

The verb lie can also mean “to tell an untruth.” Used in this way, lie still does not take an object.

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

EXAMPLE Don’t lie to her, Beth.

lie

[is] lying

lay

[have] lain

lay

[is] laying

laid

[have] laid

The past and past participle forms of this meaning of lie are lied and [have] lied.

EXAMPLES

The silverware is lying on the table. [no object] The waiter is laying silverware beside each plate. [The waiter is laying what? Silverware is the object.] The apple dolls lay drying in the sun. [no object] Aunt Martha laid her apple dolls in the sun to dry. [Aunt Martha laid what? Dolls is the object.] That bicycle had lain in the driveway for a week. [no object] Bill had laid that bicycle in the driveway. [Bill had laid what? Bicycle is the object.]

Six Troublesome Verbs

193

Oral Practice 6

Using Forms of Lie and Lay Correctly

Read the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized verbs.

USAGE

1. If you are tired, lie down for a while. 2. Lay your pencils down, please. 3. Two huge dogs lay by the fire last night. 4. The cat has been lying on the new bedspread. 5. Mr. Cortez laid the map of Puerto Rico on the table. 6. In our state, snow usually lies on the ground until late March or the first weeks of April. 7. He had laid your coats on the bed in my room. 8. After the baby had lain down for a nap, she still wanted to play with her new toy.

Exercise 8 COM P U T E R T I P Most word processors can help you check your writing to be sure that you’ve used verbs correctly. For example, a spellchecker will highlight misspelled verb forms such as attackted or drownded. Grammar-checking software can point out inconsistent verb tense, and it may also highlight questionable uses of problem verb pairs such as lie and lay or rise and raise. Some programs can also identify verbs in the passive voice. Remember, though, that the computer is just a tool. As a writer, you are responsible for making all the style and content choices that affect your writing.

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Chapter 9

Identifying the Correct Forms of Lie and Lay

Identify the correct verb of the two in parentheses for each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Marc (lay, laid) his new tennis shoes on the floor. 1. laid

1. The islands of American Samoa (lie, lay) about 4,800 miles southwest of San Francisco. 2. Dad quickly (lay, laid) the hermit crab down when it began to pinch him. 3. I don’t know where I have (lain, laid) my copy of Chinese Proverbs by Ruthanne Lum McCunn. 4. I have often (lain, laid) under the oak tree and napped. 5. Many visitors (lie, lay) flowers and wreaths at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. 6. My brother, who is sick, has been (lying, laying) in bed all day. 7. The clerk (lay, laid) the small package on the scale. 8. (Lie, Lay) your backpack down, and come see the new comic books I bought yesterday. 9. Those clothes will (lie, lay) on the floor until you pick them up. 10. After he had circled several times, the puppy (lay, laid) down and slept.

Using Verbs Correctly

Review C

Identifying the Correct Forms of Sit and Set, Rise and Raise, and Lie and Lay

Identify the correct verb of the two given in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. The bricklayer (rose, raised) from the patio floor and dusted himself off. 1. rose

USAGE

1. These rocks have (lain, laid) here for centuries. 2. Please (sit, set) there until your name is called. 3. The nurse (lay, laid) her cool hand on the sick child’s brow and decided to take his temperature. 4. The horses are (lying, laying) in the pasture. 5. The senator and her advisors had (sat, set) around the huge conference table. 6. After the picnic, everyone (lay, laid) on blankets to rest in the shade of the oak tree. 7. Smoke (rose, raised) from the chimney. 8. The farmhands (sat, set) their lunch boxes under a tree to shade them from the sun. 9. Have you been (sitting, setting) there all afternoon? 10. The sun has already (risen, raised). 11. Why has the stage manager (rose, raised) the curtains before the second act has begun? 12. A gust of hot air caused the enormous balloon to (rise, raise) out of sight of the spectators. 13. Be sure to (lie, lay) these windowpanes down carefully. 14. When the queen enters, each guest should (rise, raise) from his or her chair. 15. Who (sat, set) these glasses on my chair? 16. “(Lie, Lay) down!” the trainer sharply ordered the puppy, but the puppy didn’t obey. 17. If we had a pulley, we could (rise, raise) that stone. 18. Just (sit, set) those green beans by the sink; I’ll get to them in a minute. 19. Mom and Aunt Linda must have been (lying, laying) tile in the kitchen all afternoon. 20. You (rise, raise) the garage door, and I’ll bring the bikes in out of the rain.

Six Troublesome Verbs

195

Review D

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Verb Forms

Most of the following sentences contain incorrect verb forms. If a sentence contains the wrong form of a verb, write the correct form. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. built

USAGE

2. gone 3. lies 4. used 5. C 6. grew 7. rose 8. sat 9. spoken 10. C

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1. During the 1800s, many German settlers choosed to live in the Hill Country of central Texas. 1. chose

1. These hardy, determined pioneers builded towns and cleared land for farming. 2. I have went to the town of Fredericksburg several times with my family. 3. This interesting town lays about 80 miles west of Austin. 4. Fredericksburg use to be in Comanche territory. 5. Early on, German settlers made peace with neighboring Comanche chiefs. 6. The town then growed rapidly. 7. German-style churches, public buildings, and houses like the one shown here raised along the town’s central street. 8. On one of our visits, my family set and talked about the town with a woman who had been born there. 9. She said that she had spoke German all her life. 10. When we left, she raised a hand and said, “Auf Wiedersehen” (until we meet again).

Using Verbs Correctly

C CH HA AP PT TE ER R

Chapter Review

1.–25. [9c] 1. broke 2. rang 3. shrunk 4. thrown 5. led 6. rose [rise, raise] 7. swum 8. chosen 9. gone 10. sat [sit, set] 11. written 12. did 13. stole 14. broken 15. drunk 16. sunk 17. lain [lie, lay] 18. driven 19. began 20. set [sit, set] 21. threw 22. known 23. took 24. tore 25. came

1. break 2. ring 3. shrink 4. throw 5. lead 6. rise 7. swim 8. choose 9. go 10. sit 11. write 12. do 13. steal 14. break 15. drink 16. sink 17. lie 18. drive 19. begin 20. set 21. throw 22. know 23. take 24. tear 25. come

The thunder the silence. Who the fire alarm so quickly? This shirt must have in the dryer. You’ve the ball out of bounds! Julio the parade last year, so now it’s my turn. The sun over the pyramids of Giza in Egypt. We have only three laps. Vera was as captain of the volleyball team. I have to visit the Grand Canyon twice. The tiny tree frog motionless. Joan has a story about aliens from the Andromeda galaxy. During class, Jorge the first five problems of his homework assignment. Three runners bases during the first inning. This summer’s heat wave has all records. Have you all of the tomato juice? The log had slowly into the quicksand. The old postcards have in the box for years. Have you ever across the state of Texas? Our local PBS station its fund-raising drive. Have you the paper plates and napkins on the picnic table? Who the ball to first base? I have some of my classmates for six years. Kadeem the role of Frederick Douglass. My mother the paper to make confetti. We close to winning the tournament.

Chapter Review

USAGE

Terms and numerals in brackets refer to concepts and rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

A. Using Irregular Verbs Write the correct past or past participle form of the italicized irregular verb provided before each sentence.

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B. Changing Tenses of Verbs Rewrite each of the following sentences to change the verb or verbs to the tense indicated in italics. 26. has come/has brought [9d, a, c] 27. had slept [9d, a, c] 28. moves/hears [9d, a, b, c] 29. will have [9d, a, c] 30. knew/grew [9d, a, c]

26. present perfect 27. past perfect 28. present 29. future perfect 30. past

Every time Roger comes to visit me, he brings his dog Zip with him. The dog will sleep on the kitchen floor for the entire visit. Zip moved only if he heard the sounds of food being prepared. Zip has broken all records for a dog not moving a muscle. We had known Zip before he had grown old.

C. Making Verb Tenses Consistent Read the following sentences, and choose whether to rewrite them in the present or past tense. Then, rewrite the sentences, changing the verb forms to make the verb tense consistent. 31. comes/drives or came/drove [9e, d, c] 32. finishes/forgets or finished/forgot [9e, d, b, c] 33. drop/climbs or dropped/climbed [9e, d, b] 34. jumps/cheers/ makes or jumped/ cheered/made [9e, d, b, c] 35. presents/are or presented/were [9e, d, b, c] 36.–40. [active and passive voice] 36. passive 37. active

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31. My uncle comes back to Michigan for Christmas, and he

drove his vintage sports car. 32. Ava finished her assignment, but she forgets to put a title page on it. 33. The stages of the booster rocket dropped away as the space shuttle climbs into the sky. 34. Aunt Maureen jumped to her feet and cheers when Mia made the winning basket. 35. When Barbara presents her science fair project, all the judges were very impressed.

D. Identifying Active and Passive Voice Tell whether the italicized verb is in the active voice or the passive voice in each of the following sentences. 36. The grass clippings and the kitchen scraps were placed on the

compost pile. 37. Most of the class had already gone to see that play.

Using Verbs Correctly

38. All of the pencils were sharpened by Erica and Austin before

the test began. 39. My father was asked for his advice on repairing the old playground equipment. 40. Every Friday night the Lopez family invites us to their house for dinner.

38. passive 39. passive 40. active

Writing Application Using Verbs in a Story A local writers’ club is sponsoring a contest for the best “cliffhanger” opening of an adventure story. Write an exciting paragraph to enter in the contest. Your paragraph should leave readers wondering “What happens next?” In your paragraph, use at least five verbs from the lists of Common Irregular Verbs in this chapter.

USAGE

Verb Forms and Tenses

Prewriting First, you will need to imagine a suspenseful situ-

ation to describe. Jot down several ideas for your story opening. Then, choose the one you like best. With that situation in mind, scan the lists of irregular verbs. Note at least ten verbs you can use. Include some lively action verbs like burst, swing, and throw. As you write your rough draft, think of your readers. Choose words that create a suspenseful, believable scene. Remember that you have only one paragraph to catch your readers’ interest.

Writing

Ask a friend to read your paragraph. Does your friend find it interesting? Can he or she picture the scene clearly? If not, you may want to add, delete, or revise some details.

Revising

Check your spelling, usage, punctuation, and grammar. Check to make sure the forms of verbs are correct and the tenses are consistent. You may want to exchange your cliffhanger with a partner, and complete each other’s stories. With your teacher’s permission, you can then read the completed stories aloud to the class. Publishing

Chapter Review

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CHAPTER

Using Pronouns Correctly Nominative and Objective Case Forms, Other Pronoun Problems

Diagnostic Preview

Terms and numerals in brackets refer to concepts and rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. We [appositive, 10b] 2. she [10c] 3. I [10b] 4. me [10e] 5. C [10d] 6. himself [reflexive pronoun] 7. her [10d] 8. he [10c] 9. we [10b] 10. C [10e] 11. she [10b]

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A. Correcting Errors in Pronoun Forms Most of the following sentences contain errors in the use of pronoun forms. Identify the error, and give the correct pronoun form for each sentence. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. The Garcia children and them grew up together in East Texas. 1. them—they

1. Us basketball players know the value of warming up. 2. The computer experts in our class are Rosalinda and her. 3. Pablo and me are planning to visit the Andes Mountains. 4. At Passover, my grandparents make gefilte fish and other traditional foods for my cousins and I. 5. Give Sue and him this invitation to the awards ceremony. 6. Josh made hisself a bookcase in industrial arts class. 7. Two angry hornets chased Earline and she all the way home. 8. The first actors on stage were Jesse and him. 9. Mr. Mendez and us organized a debate about student rights. 10. Will you attend the rally with Scott and me? 11. Jeannette and her know a great deal about Greek myths.

Using Pronouns Correctly

12. The hickory smoke smelled good to we campers. 13. Liang was telling them and me about his home in Hong Kong. 14. Julia and them learned how to make batik patterns on cloth. 15. Tom asked Mark and he if they wanted to join a gospel band. B. Revising for Clear Pronoun Reference Revise each of the following sentences, correcting each unclear pronoun reference. EXAMPLE

1. Brad informed Luke that his brother was late.

10 a

12. us [appositive, 10e] 13. C [10d] 14. they [10b] 15. him [10d] HELP Sentences in Part B of the Diagnostic Preview may have more than one possible answer.

16. Liz called Gail while she was doing her Spanish homework. 17. Ryan spotted John in the crowded theater when he stood up. 18. As soon as Mom and Aunt Sue arrived in Denver, she e-mailed me. 19. Julie saw Louise while she was in Paris. 20. Before Chad met Kyle, he had never water-skied.

Case 10a. Case is the form that a noun or pronoun takes to show its relationship to other words in a sentence.

English has three cases for nouns and pronouns: • nominative • objective • possessive The form of a noun is the same for both the nominative and the objective cases. For example, a noun used as a subject (nominative case) will have the same form when used as a direct object (objective case). NOMINATIVE CASE OBJECTIVE CASE

That Ming vase is very old. [subject] Who bought the vase? [direct object]

16.–20. [clear reference] Answers may vary. Possible responses are given. 16. Liz/, she called Gail. 17. When John stood up,/him 18. Mom 19. Julie/, she saw Louise. 20. before he met Kyle.

HELP The nominative case is sometimes referred to as the subject form. The objective case is sometimes referred to as the object form. Follow your teacher’s instructions when using these terms. Reference Note

A noun changes its form only in the possessive case, usually by adding an apostrophe and an s. POSSESSIVE CASE

The Ming vase’s new owner is pleased.

For more about forming the possessive case of nouns, see page 330.

Case

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USAGE

1. Brad informed Luke that Luke’s brother was late.

Unlike nouns, most personal pronouns have different forms for all three cases. Personal Pronouns Nominative Case

Objective Case

Possessive Case

Singular I you he, she, it

me you him, her, it

my, mine your, yours his, her, hers, its

USAGE

Plural we you they

us you them

our, ours your, yours their, theirs

NOTE

The personal pronouns in the possessive case—my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs—are used to show ownership or relationship.

The possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs are used as parts of sentences in the same ways in which the pronouns in the nominative and the objective cases are used. EXAMPLES

His book and mine are overdue. This desk is his. We completed ours this morning.

The possessive pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, and their are used as adjectives before nouns. EXAMPLES

My shoes need to be cleaned. Have you proofread her report yet? There goes their dog Rex.

NOTE

Some authorities prefer to call these words adjectives. Follow your teacher’s instructions regarding these possessive forms.

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10 b

The Nominative Case EXAMPLES

He and I mowed lawns. [He and I are used together as the compound subject of mowed.]

Reference Note For more about subjects, see page 5.

Did they craft candles from antique molds? [They is the subject of Did craft.] She baked cranberry bread while we wrapped packages. [She is the subject of baked. We is the subject of wrapped.]

Oral Practice 1

Using Pronouns as Subjects

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized pronouns. 1. Dr. Chen and they discussed the usefulness of herbal medicines. 2. He and I live next door to each other. 3. They should try to get along better. 4. Yesterday she and they gave their reports on modern African American poets. 5. You and she left the party early. 6. Since the third grade, we have been friends. 7. He and his family are moving to Puerto Rico. 8. I will miss them. Exercise 1

TIPS

TRICKS

To help you choose the correct pronoun in a compound subject, try each form of the pronoun separately. EXAMPLE (She, Her) and (I, me) found them. [She found or Her found? I found or Me found?] ANSWER She and I found them.

Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. My friends and (I, me) like to spend time outdoors. 1. I

1. Lou and (me, I) asked my mother to drive us to a nearby state park. 2. There (he and I, him and me) set out on a marked trail through the woods. 3. Before long, (he and I, him and me) were exploring a snowy area off the beaten track. 4. At midday Lou and (me, I) reluctantly followed our tracks back to the path. 5. (Us, We) had had the best time of our lives. Case

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USAGE

10b. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative case.

6. I told Mother that I thought (she, her) would enjoy the trail. 7. To my surprise, (she, her) wanted to walk part of the trail then. 8. Lou and (she, her) immediately started hiking down the trail. 9. (They, Them) knew that I would follow. 10. (Us, We) had fun but were ready to ride instead of walk home! 10c. A predicate nominative should be in the nominative case.

USAGE

STYLE

TIP

Expressions such as It’s me and That’s her are acceptable in everyday speaking. However, these expressions contain the objective case pronouns me and her used incorrectly as predicate nominatives. Such expressions should be avoided in formal writing and speaking.

Reference Note For more about predicate nominatives, see page 79.

TIPS

TRICKS

To choose the correct form of a pronoun used as a predicate nominative, try reversing the order of the sentence. EXAMPLE The fastest runner is (he, him).

ANSWER The fastest runner is he. Chapter 10

EXAMPLES

The candidates should have been he and she. [He and she follow the linking verb should have been and identify the subject candidates.] The members of the team are they. [They follows the linking verb are and identifies the subject members.]

Oral Practice 2

Using Pronouns as Predicate Nominatives

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized pronouns. 1. Were the only Spanish-speaking people you and they? 2. The caller could have been she. 3. The leaders will be my mother and he. 4. The three candidates for class president are she and we. 5. That must be the pilot and he on the runway. 6. The three winners were Eduardo, Maya, and I. 7. The first ones on the scene were our neighbors and they. 8. The speakers at the rally were she and Jesse Jackson. Exercise 2

REVERSED (He, Him) is the fastest runner.

204

A predicate nominative is a word or word group that is in the predicate and that identifies or refers to the subject of the verb. A pronoun used as a predicate nominative completes the meaning of a linking verb, usually a form of the verb be (such as am, are, is, was, were, be, been, or being).

Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Were the ones who left early (they, them)? 1. they

1. Two witnesses claimed that the burglar was (him, he).

Using Pronouns Correctly

10 c

2. The volunteers must be (them, they). 3. Is the last performer (she, her)? 4. The next speaker will be (him, he). 5. The guests of honor are Luther and (us, we). 6. I knew the one in red was (she, her), of course. 7. The hardest workers are Susan, Tranh, and (me, I ). 8. Can that be (she, her) in the Indian sari? 9. The next batter should be (she, her). 10. Our newest neighbors are the Blumenthals and (them, they). Review A

Writing Sentences That Contain Pronouns in the Nominative Case

EXAMPLE

USAGE

The busy scene you see on the next page was painted by the Mexican American artist Carmen Lomas Garza. It shows one of her childhood birthday parties. The fish-shaped object is a piñata, full of treats for the children. Carmen is getting ready to take a swing at the piñata. Answer each of the following questions by writing a sentence. Follow the directions after each question. 1. What are the kneeling boys in the lower right-hand corner doing? (Use a plural personal pronoun as the subject.) 1. They are getting ready to play marbles.

1. What is Carmen using to hit the piñata? (Use a singular personal pronoun as the subject.) 2. For whom are the presents on the table? (Use a plural personal pronoun as the subject.) 3. Who will get the gifts and treats inside the piñata? (Use a person’s name and a plural personal pronoun as the compound subject.) 4. Have you and your classmates ever played a game that requires a blindfold? (Use a plural and a singular personal pronoun as the compound subject.) 5. Why does the boy at the far left have presents in his hands? (Use a singular personal pronoun as the subject.) 6. What would Carmen say if you asked her, “Who’s the birthday girl?” (Use a singular personal pronoun as a predicate nominative.) 7. Did Carmen’s parents and her grandmother plan the party? (Use a plural and a singular personal pronoun as a compound predicate nominative.) Case

205

USAGE

8. Are the baby and his mother near the table having a good time? (Use the baby and a singular personal pronoun as the compound subject.) 9. Is Carmen’s father the man holding the piñata rope? (Use a singular personal pronoun as a predicate nominative.) 10. Who is the one now looking at the picture of Carmen Lomas Garza’s birthday party? (Use a singular personal pronoun as a predicate nominative.)

The Objective Case Reference Note For more about direct and indirect objects, see pages 74 and 76.

10d. Direct objects and indirect objects of verbs should be in the objective case.

A direct object is a noun, pronoun, or word group that tells who or what receives the action of the verb. EXAMPLES

Mom called me to the phone. [Me tells whom Mom called.] Julia bought sweet potatoes and used them to make filling for the empanadas. [Them tells what she used.]

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EXAMPLES

The hostess handed her a name tag. [Her tells to whom the hostess handed the name tag.] Mr. Tanaka raises large goldfish; he often feeds them rice. [Them tells to what Mr. Tanaka feeds rice.]

N O T E Indirect objects do not follow prepositions. If to or for

precedes a pronoun, the pronoun is an object of a preposition, not an indirect object. OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION INDIRECT OBJECT

Oral Practice 3

Send a letter to me. Send me a letter.

10 d

TIPS

TRICKS

To help you choose the correct pronoun in a compound object, try each form of the pronoun separately in the sentence. EXAMPLE The teacher chose Luisa and (I, me). [The teacher chose I or The teacher chose me?] ANSWER The teacher chose Luisa and me.

Using Pronouns as Direct Objects and Indirect Objects

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized pronouns. 1. I took Joe and her to a performance by French mimes. 2. The bus driver let Melba, Joe, and me off at the corner. 3. An usher gave us programs. 4. Another usher showed them and me our seats. 5. The performers fascinated Melba and me. 6. Their costumes delighted the crowd and her. 7. No one else impressed Joe and me as much as the youngest mime did. 8. We watched her exploring the walls of an invisible room. Exercise 3

Writing Pronouns Used as Direct Objects and Indirect Objects

Write an appropriate pronoun for each blank in the sentences on the following page. Use a variety of pronouns, but do not use you or it. EXAMPLE

1. Have you seen Kim and 1. her

Case

207

USAGE

An indirect object is a noun, pronoun, or word group that often appears in sentences containing direct objects. An indirect object tells to whom or to what or for whom or for what the action of the verb is done. An indirect object generally comes between an action verb and its direct object.

USAGE

Responses will vary. Sample responses are given. 1. me 2. them/us 3. her 4. them/me 5. him 6. me 7. her/him 8. her/me 9. her 10. me

1. The manager hired Susana and . 2. Lana sent and invitations. 3. We gave Grandpa López and round-trip tickets to Mexico City. 4. The firefighters rescued and . 5. Aunt Coretta showed my cousins and a carved mask from Nigeria. 6. The show entertained the children and . 7. The waiter served and a variety of dumplings. 8. Our team chose and as representatives. 9. The election committee nominated Gerry and . 10. The clerk gave Misako and the receipt for the paper lanterns. Review B

Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of each pronoun in parentheses in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Paul told Ms. Esteban that (he, him) and (I, me) need a topic for our report. 1. he, I

1. In our American history class, some of the other students and (he, him) thought that there should be more reports on women. 2. We were interested in Amelia Earhart and wanted to give (she, her) the recognition she deserves. 3. The picture on the left, showing Amelia Earhart looking relaxed and confident, interested Paul and (I, me). 4. Both (he, him) and (I, me) were eager to find out more about her contribution to aviation. 5. We learned that it was (she, her) who made the first solo flight by a woman across the Atlantic. 6. The fact that Amelia Earhart was the first pilot to fly from Hawaii to California surprised the rest of the class and (we, us), too. 7. In 1937, her navigator and (she, her) took off in a twin-engine plane for a trip around the world. 8. After (they, them) had completed two thirds of the trip, Earhart and her navigator lost contact with radio operators. 208

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Using Pronouns Correctly

10 e

9. No one ever saw (they, them) or the airplane again. 10. Ms. Esteban and (we, us) are among the many people still puzzling over this mystery. 10e. The object of a preposition should be in the objective case.

A noun or pronoun that follows a preposition is called the object of a preposition. Together, the preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object make a prepositional phrase. EXAMPLES

Before us lay rows of green cornstalks. [Us is the object of the preposition Before.]

Reference Note For a list of commonly used prepositions, see page 58. For more about prepositional phrases, see page 90.

USAGE

The secret is between him and me. [Him and me are the compound object of the preposition between.] Please stand next to her. [Her is the object of the compound preposition next to.]

Oral Practice 4

Using Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized prepositions and pronouns. 1. Mr. Torres divided the burritos among them and us. 2. At the game Maria sat near him and her. 3. Rose walked toward Nell and me. 4. Sam stood between him and me. 5. Mom ordered sandwiches for Hannah and her. 6. “Without Squanto and me, the Pilgrims won’t last another winter,” thought Samoset. 7. I have read biographies about him and Martin Luther. 8. David’s parents gave a bar mitzvah party for him. Exercise 4

Choosing Pronouns Used as Objects of Prepositions

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the sentences on the following page. EXAMPLE

TIPS

TRICKS

To determine the correct pronoun form when the object of a preposition is compound, use each pronoun separately in the prepositional phrase. EXAMPLE Maria sent a postcard to (she, her) and (I, me). [To she or to her? To I or to me?] ANSWER Maria sent a postcard to her and me.

1. Of all the people who traveled with Lewis and Clark, Sacagawea was particularly helpful to (them, they). 1. them

Case

209

STYLE

TIP

Sometimes pronouns such as I, he, she, we, and they sound awkward when used as parts of a compound subject. In such cases, it is a good idea to revise the sentence.

USAGE

AWKWARD She and we are going to the concert. They and I will meet for lunch. REVISED We are going to the concert with her. I will meet them for lunch.

1. Sacagawea’s husband, a guide named Toussaint Charbonneau, joined the expedition with (her, she) and their newborn baby. 2. The Shoshone were Sacagawea’s people, and she longed to return to (them, they). 3. Captain Clark soon realized how important she would be to Lewis and (he, him). 4. The land they were exploring was familiar to (she, her). 5. Luckily for (she, her) and the expedition, they met a group of friendly Shoshone. 6. From (them, they), Sacagawea obtained the ponies that Lewis and Clark needed. 7. Sacagawea’s baby boy delighted the expedition’s leaders, and they took good care of (he, him). 8. In fact, Captain Clark made a promise to (she, her) and Charbonneau that he would give the boy a good education. 9. At the age of eighteen, the boy befriended a prince and traveled with (him, he) in Europe. 10. Although sources disagree about when Sacagawea died, a gravestone for (she, her) in Wyoming bears the date April 9, 1884. Review C

STYLE

TIP

Just as there are good manners in behavior, there are also good manners in language. In English it is considered polite to put first-person pronouns (I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours) last in compound constructions. EXAMPLE Please return the photos to Bill, Ellen, or me [not me, Bill, or Ellen].

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Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. Then, tell what part of the sentence each pronoun is: subject, predicate nominative, direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition. EXAMPLE

1. My brother Pete and (I, me) wanted to know more about Elizabeth Blackwell. 1. I—subject

1. Mom told Pete and (I, me) the story of Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to graduate from medical school in the United States. 1. i.o. 2. Geneva College granted (she, her) a degree in 1849. 2. i.o. 3. At first, because she was a woman, no male doctor would let her work for (he, him). 3. o.p. 4. Pete and (I, me) admire Elizabeth Blackwell for not giving up. 4. s. 5. She wanted to help the poor and opened her own clinic for (they, them). 5. o.p.

Using Pronouns Correctly

USAGE

6. Wealthy citizens were soon supporting (she, her) and the clinic with donations. 6. d.o. 7. Before long, one of the most talked-about topics in medical circles was (she, her) and the excellent work she was doing for the poor. 7. p.n. 8. Mom and (we, us) read more about Dr. Blackwell, and we learned that she opened a medical school just for women. 8. s. 9. Dr. Blackwell set high standards for students and gave (they, them) hard courses of study to complete. 9. i.o. 10. Her teaching prepared (they, them) well, and many went on to become successful physicians. 10. d.o.

Special Pronoun Problems Who and Whom The pronoun who has different forms in the nominative and objective cases. Who is the nominative form; whom is the objective form. When you need to decide whether to use who or whom in a question, follow these steps: STEP 1 STEP 2

STEP 3 STEP 4 EXAMPLE STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 ANSWER:

Rephrase the question as a statement. Decide how the pronoun is used in the statement—as a subject, a predicate nominative, a direct or an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Determine the case of the pronoun according to the rules of formal, standard English. Select the correct form of the pronoun. (Who, Whom) is she? The statement is She is (who, whom). The pronoun is a predicate nominative that refers to the subject She. A pronoun used as a predicate nominative should be in the nominative case. The nominative form is who. Who is she?

STYLE

TIP

In informal English, the use of whom is becoming less common. In fact, in informal situations, you may correctly begin a question with who regardless of the grammar of the sentence. In formal English, however, you should distinguish between who and whom.

Special Pronoun Problems

211

EXAMPLE STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 ANSWER:

(Who, Whom) will you invite to the dance? The statement is You will invite (who, whom) to the dance. The pronoun is the direct object of the verb will invite. A pronoun used as a direct object should be in the objective case. The objective form is whom. Whom will you invite to the dance?

Oral Practice 5

Using Who and Whom

Read each of the following sentences aloud, stressing the italicized pronouns. USAGE

1. Who is captain of the football team this year? 2. To whom did you give your old skateboard? 3. Whom will you call to come and pick us up after band practice? 4. Who were the first Americans? 5. In the last play of the game, who passed the ball to whom? 6. Who’s that woman in the green sari? 7. For whom did you buy those flowers? 8. Who painted that beautiful picture? Exercise 5

Choosing Who or Whom

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. (Who, Whom) helped load the hay on the wagon this morning? 1. Who 2. To (who, whom) are you going to give the award? 2. whom

1. (Who, Whom) will your brother invite to his birthday party? 2. (Who, Whom) will be our substitute teacher while Mr. Chen is away? 3. (Who, Whom) has Ms. Spears appointed? 4. Of the three candidates, in (who, whom) do you have the most confidence? 5. To (who, whom) do you wish these balloons sent? 6. For (who, whom) is the package that was delivered?

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7. (Who, Whom) is the architect of the new library building? 8. With (who, whom) would you most like to talk? 9. Among your friends, (who, whom) is the tallest? 10. (Who, Whom) have the students elected class president?

Pronouns with Appositives Sometimes a pronoun is followed directly by a noun that identifies the pronoun. Such a noun is called an appositive. To help you choose which pronoun to use before an appositive, omit the appositive and try each form of the pronoun separately.

ANSWER

EXAMPLE

ANSWER

For more about appositives, see page 301.

On Saturdays, (we, us) cyclists ride to Mount McCabe and back. [Cyclists is the appositive identifying the pronoun.] We ride or Us ride? On Saturdays, we cyclists ride to Mount McCabe and back.

USAGE

EXAMPLE

Reference Note

The speaker praised (we, us) volunteers. [Volunteers is the appositive identifying the pronoun.] The speaker praised we or The speaker praised us? The speaker praised us volunteers.

Exercise 6

Choosing Correct Pronouns

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Hanukkah is always an exciting holiday for (we, us) Feldmans. 1. us

1. Tiger Woods is a role model for (we, us) golfers. 2. Miss Jefferson, (we, us) students want to thank you for all your help. 3. (We, Us) contestants shook hands warmly. 4. The woman gave (we, us) girls five dollars for shoveling the snow. 5. The attorneys politely answered the questions from (we, us) reporters. 6. For (we, us) volunteers, service is its own reward. 7. Frank loaned (we, us) fans two classical tapes.

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8. The pilot flew (we, us) passengers to Chicago. 9. (We, Us) actors need to rehearse again before Friday night. 10. The new team members were (we, us) boys.

Reflexive Pronouns

HELP The pronouns himself and themselves can also be used as intensive pronouns.

USAGE

EXAMPLES Daniel himself will lead the parade. They themselves traveled only twenty miles to get here.

Reference Note For more about reflexive and intensive pronouns, see page 31.

Do not use the nonstandard forms hisself and theirself or theirselves in place of himself and themselves. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

The secretary voted for hisself in the last election. The secretary voted for himself in the last election.

NONSTANDARD

The cooks served theirselves some of the hot won-ton soup. The cooks served themselves some of the hot won-ton soup.

STANDARD

Exercise 7

Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. The contestants promised (theirselves, themselves) it would be a friendly competition. 1. themselves

1. Before he started to read, Zack asked (hisself, himself ) three questions to set his purpose. 2. My little brother often falls down, but he never seems to hurt (himself, hisself ). 3. The guests helped (theirselves, themselves) to the nuts and raisins. 4. John Yellowtail enjoys (himself, hisself ) when he is making fine silver jewelry. 5. When the early settlers wanted cloth, they had to spin it (theirselves, themselves). 6. My brother was upset with (hisself, himself ) for being rude. 7. Andrew gave (himself, hisself ) an early birthday present— a new CD. 8. The Sartens talked (theirselves, themselves) out of buying a second vehicle.

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Review D

USAGE

DRABBLE re printed by pe United Feat rmission of ure Syndica te, Inc.

9. Uncle Allen took the last potatoes for (hisself, himself ) and passed the broccoli to me. 10. Bart and Ana consider (theirself, themselves) authorities on stamp collecting.

Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. To me, the two most interesting explorers are (he, him) and Vasco da Gama. 1. he

1. The team captains will be Jack and (he, him). 2. The finalists in our school talent contest are Alexandra, Tomás, and (I, me). 3. We were praised by our parents and (they, them). 4. The Washington twins and (I, me) belong to the same club. 5. Both (he and she, her and him) promised to mail us postcards from Buenos Aires. 6. Pelé and (he, him) both played soccer for the New York Cosmos. 7. “What do you think of (he and I, him and me)?” I asked. 8. “You and (he, him) are improving,” they replied. 9. When Miriam Makeba and the troupe of African musicians arrived, we gave (she and they, her and them) a party. 10. Do you remember my sister and (I, me)? 11. The coach spoke to (we, us) players before the game. 12. Was the joke played on you and (he, him)? 13. Are you and (she, her) going to celebrate Kwanzaa this year? 14. Madame Durand taught my brother and (I, me) several phrases in French. Special Pronoun Problems

215

USAGE

15. Mom, Andy gave (himself, hisself ) the biggest piece of banana bread. 16. Who are (they, them), Travis? 17. They congratulated (themselves, theirselves) on a difficult job well done. 18. Don’t leave without (he and I, him and me). 19. (We, Us) skiers had a beautiful view from the lift. 20. (Who, Whom) were you expecting? 21. When we met at the auditions for the school play last year, (he and I, him and me) got along very well right away. 22. (Who, Whom) recommended that book about the history of Ireland to you? 23. When Sharon and (I, me) work on homework together, we always get through it faster and remember it better. 24. (Who, Whom) will you be tutoring from the elementary school, Margaret Tanaka or Billy Worthington? 25. Everyone agreed that the science project designed by Shannon and (him, he) was the best one in the show.

Clear Reference A pronoun should refer clearly to its antecedent, the word or word group the pronoun stands for. If a pronoun could refer to more than one antecedent, revise the sentence to make the meaning clear. 216

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UNCLEAR

CLEAR

Jeremy promised to meet Sean in front of his house. [To whom does his refer? Are Jeremy and Sean meeting in front of Jeremy’s house or in front of Sean’s house?] Jeremy promised to meet Sean in front of Sean’s house.

or CLEAR

UNCLEAR

CLEAR

Jeremy promised to meet Sean in front of Jeremy’s house.

Mr. Cassner asked Todd to file the memo after he had read it. [To whom does he refer? Is Todd filing the memo after Mr. Cassner has read it or after Todd has read it?] After Mr. Cassner had read the memo, he asked Todd to file it.

MEETING THE CHALLENGE Unclear pronoun references may confuse your reader. Compose five sentences that each contain an unclear pronoun reference. Then, write a revision that clarifies the unclear reference for each sentence.

CLEAR

Mr. Cassner asked Todd to file the memo after Todd had read it.

Exercise 8

Revising for Clear Pronoun Reference

Revise each of the following sentences, correcting each unclear pronoun reference. EXAMPLE

USAGE

HELP Sentences in Exercise 8 may have more than one correct answer.

1. The dog and the cat were both eating out of its dish. 1. The dog and the cat were both eating out of the dog’s dish.

1. Jessica waved to Betsy while she was riding the Ferris wheel. 2. Byron told Alec that his cousin was on the telephone. 3. After Tracey and Jen arrived home, their mom gave her a birthday bouquet. 4. Tabitha asked Jill whether she could help with the painting. 5. As soon as Brett saw Carlos, he said hello. 6. The beagle and the Dalmatian played with its old chew toy. 7. Jake helped Austin clean the kitchen after he had finished preparing the bread dough. 8. Mr. Lewis told Mr. Washington that he had won the award. 9. As soon as she completed the chores, Wendy and Lori left for the soccer game. 10. Kip didn’t see Matt at the pep rally until he stood on the bleachers.

1. Jessica/ , she waved to Betsy. 2. Alec’s 3. Tracey 4. Jill 5. Brett said hello/he 6. the beagle’s 7. After/had finished preparing the bread dough, he 8. Mr. Washington 9. Wendy/she 10. Matt

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Review E

HELP Some sentences in Review E may have more than one correct answer.

Revising Sentences for Correct Pronoun Forms and Clear Pronoun Reference

Revise each of the following sentences, correcting each incorrect pronoun form and unclear pronoun reference. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. The twins, Veronica and Caroline, were reading her Caldecott Honor Book together.

USAGE

1. The twins, Veronica and Caroline, were reading Veronica’s Caldecott Honor Book together. 1. After/got off work, he 2. C 3. he 4. me 5. Whom 6. Joseph’s 7. them 8. Terri 9. Theresa 10. C

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1. Malcolm met Aaron at the branch library after he got off work. 2. Peter and she were leaving the art museum. 3. The winner of the race is him. 4. Carnell spoke to Ed and I before hockey practice. 5. Who should I ask? 6. Joseph asked Matthew to wash his dirty dishes before their mom came home from work. 7. Elizabeth gave miniature roses to Lee and they. 8. Lisa asked Terri whether she could bake bread for our fundraiser. 9. Katherine informed Theresa that she needed to change the oil in the car. 10. He and Angela won trophies yesterday.

Using Pronouns Correctly

CHAPTER

Chapter Review A. Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

1. [appositive, 10d] 2. [10d] 3. [10e] 4. [reflexive pronoun] 5. [10b] 6. [10d] 7. [10c] 8. [appositive, 10d] 9. [10c] 10. [10d] 11. [10e] 12. [10d] 13. [who, whom; 10b] 14. [appositive, 10b] 15. [appositive, 10d] 16. [10c] 17. [who, whom; 10a] 18. [who, whom; 10e] 19. [10b] 20. [reflexive pronoun] 21. we [appositive, 10b] 22. whom [who, whom; 10e] 23. him [10e]

Identify the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. 1. The counselor chose (we, us) students to give the tour. 2. Don’t worry; my stepmother will take you and (I, me) home. 3. Ms. Chavez sat between Kareem and (I, me) at the assembly. 4. It’s a shame that the boys hurt (themselves, theirselves) last night. 5. Will you and (I, me) be able to reach them in time? 6. Mayor Petrakis asked my mom and (she, her) to help. 7. Is this (she, her) to whom we spoke yesterday? 8. Our coach e-mailed (we, us) sprinters about the next meet. 9. The fastest typists in class are Tamika and (they, them). 10. While we were at the store, we saw my cousin and (she, her). 11. Our dog Piper will bring the ball to (he, him) or (she, her). 12. Last night Dad told Carlyn and (I, me) a story. 13. (Whom, Who) wrote The Wind in the Willows? 14. (We, Us) students were not expecting the pop quiz. 15. The referee signaled (we, us) players to begin the game. 16. The best calligrapher in the school is (she, her). 17. (Whom, Who) is the better candidate? 18. To (who, whom) is the letter addressed? 19. Roger and (I, me) are studying for our lifeguard certificates. 20. Derek looked at (hisself, himself ) in the mirror.

USAGE

Terms and numerals in brackets refer to concepts and rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

B. Correcting Errors in Pronoun Forms Most of the following sentences contain an error in the use of pronoun forms. Identify the error, and give the correct form for each sentence. If a sentence is already correct, write C. 21. May us choir members leave science class early today? 22. To who are you sending the flowers? 23. The opening procession of the Olympics will be led by he.

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USAGE

24. C [10e] 25. He [10b] 26. himself [reflexive pronoun] 27. she [10c] 28. Whom [who, whom; 10d] 29. me [10d] 30. C [who, whom; 10d] 31. We [appositive, 10b] 32. Whom [who, whom; 10d] 33. us [10d] 34. he [10b] 35. C [10c] 36. C [10b] 37. Who [who, whom; 10c] 38. her [10e] 39. themselves [reflexive pronoun] 40. C [appositive, 10e] 41. I [10b] 42. me [10e] 43. C [10d] 44. he [10c] 45. C [appositive, 10d]

24. Please give these copies of Consuela’s report to her and the

committee members. 25. Him and his best friend watched the World Cup finals. 26. Darnell enjoyed hisself at the African Heritage Festival. 27. The last tennis player to beat my sister in straight sets was her. 28. Who have you asked for help with your math homework? 29. Tell Jennifer and I what your science project will be this year. 30. Whom did you invite to the awards ceremony? 31. Us science fiction fans are going to the book signing. 32. Who will we see at the mosque? 33. Mario’s mother will be driving Elena and we to the stadium. 34. Emilio and him volunteered to decorate the cafeteria. 35. The perfect person to play Lady Macbeth is she. 36. Neither Kevin nor I can decide which of Ray Bradbury’s stories we like best. 37. Whom are the most famous inventors in history? 38. Last year, the best piñata was designed by the twins and she. 39. They really outdid theirselves! 40. You should hear the fight song written by us four fans this year! 41. My father and me watched Amadeus on video last night. 42. Between you and I, I think Ko will win the Web page contest. 43. The state trooper gave her a ticket for an illegal left turn. 44. The last people to arrive at the party were Cordelia and him. 45. Mom, will you take us tired yard workers out for dinner?

C. Revising for Clear Pronoun Reference HELP Sentences in Part C of the Chapter Review may have more than one possible answer.

Revise each of the following sentences, correcting each unclear pronoun reference. 46.–50. [clear reference] 46. When she arrived, Sonia asked Liz for a pen. 46. Sonia/she 47. As soon as Grant and Patrick paddled back to the dock, he

lashed the boat securely. 47. Grant 48. The tabby cat and the beagle both curled up on its rug before the warm fireplace. 48. the dog’s 49. As/, she waved to Juliet 49. Sheila waved to Juliet as she biked along the trail. 50. Before Sara met Jan, she had never been kayaking. 50. Sara

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Writing Application Using Pronouns in a Letter Nominative and Objective Case Your favorite radio station is having a “Create a Radio Show” contest. Write a letter to the manager of the station explaining what you would like to include in a half-hour weekly radio show. In your letter, use a variety of pronouns in the nominative case and the objective case. Be sure to include enough nouns so that the meaning of all your pronouns is clear.

USAGE

Prewriting Discuss your ideas for a radio program with a group of your classmates. List the kinds of entertainment and information you could present. Above all, think about what you would like to hear on the radio. Writing As you write your first draft, follow the format for a business letter. Give specific examples of what you want to do on the show, and give reasons for your choices. Remember that even though your ideas may be very creative, your writing must be formal. Revising Ask the other group members to read your letter to see if your ideas sound interesting and are clearly stated. Ask them if the relationship between each pronoun and its antecedent is clear. If your meaning is not clear, revise your letter. Publishing Re-read your letter, and correct any remaining errors in usage, spelling, punctuation, or capitalization. Be sure that you have followed the correct format for a business letter. Also, make sure that you have used all pronouns according to the rules for standard written English. With your teacher’s permission, the class might vote on the best idea for a show and then produce and tape the pilot episode.

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CHAPTER

Using Modifiers Correctly Comparison and Placement

Diagnostic Preview HELP Although two possible answers are shown, you need to give only one answer for each item in the Diagnostic Preview.

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. heavier [11c(2, 3)] 2. we watched as [11h] 3. in the newspaper [11h] 4. C [11e, a] 5. Walking to school, [11h] 6. C [11c(2)] 7. While I was [11h] 8. [11g] 9. When the balloons burst, they [11h] 10. [11f]

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Revising Sentences by Correcting Errors in the Use of Modifiers Most of the following sentences contain errors in the use, form, or placement of modifiers. Revise each incorrect sentence to eliminate the error. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. There wasn’t nothing missing. 1. There wasn’t anything missing. or There was nothing missing. Some answers may vary.

1. Please weigh both packages to see which of them is heaviest. 2. Alarmed, the wildfire started to spread quickly to our camp. 3. Did you read that Eduardo Mata received an award in the newspaper? 4. The bean soup tasted good. 5. We pass my aunt and uncle’s restaurant.walking to school. 6. I think the play Fiddler on the Roof is better than the movie. 7. Reading a magazine, my cat jumped up in my lap. 8. Jason tried to push the huge desk but couldn’t scarcely move it. 9. The balloons startled the young children.when they burst. 10. A jet taking off can sound more noisier than a jackhammer.

Using Modifiers Correctly

11 11. I was/that [11h] a, b 12. [11g] 13. C [11c(2)] 14. older [11c(2, 3)] 15. the dealer [11h] 16. [11g] 17. well [11d, b] 18. come from Ireland [11h] 19. increases [11h] 20. carefully [11b]

USAGE

11. Surprised, my coin collection interested a local coin dealer. 12. He examined two old Greek coins but couldn’t see no date. 13. The shinier of those two coins looked newer. 14. That coin turned out to be the oldest of the two, however. 15. I showed one coin to the dealer valued at nearly twenty dollars. 16. He said he couldn’t hardly pay more than fifteen dollars for it. 17. If I had bargained good, I might have gotten more for it. 18. Those two coins come from Ireland that have images of harps on them. 19. Collecting coins, my knowledge about other countries and peoples increases. 20. I polished my Saudi Arabian fifty-halala piece careful so that I could see the Arabic writing on it.

What Is a Modifier? A modifier is a word, a phrase, or a clause that makes the meaning of a word or word group more specific. The two kinds of modifiers are adjectives and adverbs.

Reference Note For more about adjectives, see page 34. For more about adverbs, see page 54.

One-Word Modifiers Adjectives 11a. Adjectives make the meanings of nouns and pronouns more specific. ADJECTIVES

Andy gave a loud cheer. [The adjective loud tells what kind of cheer.] The one I made is blue. [The adjective blue tells which one.]

Adverbs 11b. Adverbs make the meanings of verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs more specific. ADVERBS

Andy cheered loudly. [The adverb loudly makes the meaning of the verb cheered more specific.]

TIPS

TRICKS

Many adverbs end in –ly, but many others do not. Furthermore, not all words with the –ly ending are adverbs. Some adjectives end in –ly. ADVERBS quickly calmly

soon not

ADJECTIVES elderly holy curly silly To decide whether a word is an adjective or an adverb, look at how the word is used in the sentence. What Is a Modifier?

223

The design is very modern. [The adverb very makes the meaning of the adjective modern more specific.] The crocodile moved surprisingly quickly. [The adverb surprisingly makes the meaning of the adverb quickly more specific.]

Phrases Used as Modifiers Reference Note

EXAMPLES

USAGE

For more about different kinds of phrases, see Chapter 5.

Like one-word modifiers, phrases can also be used as adjectives and adverbs. Leaping from the step, the toddler flapped his arms in the air. [The participial phrase Leaping from the step acts as an adjective that modifies the noun toddler.] The Greek salad is the one to try. [The infinitive phrase to try acts as an adjective that modifies the pronoun one.] Ms. Elizondo planted rosebushes along the fence. [The prepositional phrase along the fence acts as an adverb that modifies the verb planted.]

Clauses Used as Modifiers Like words and phrases, clauses can also be used as modifiers.

Reference Note For more about clauses, see Chapter 6.

EXAMPLES

Italian is the language that I like best. [The adjective clause that I like best modifies the noun language.] Before Albert went to school, he took the trash to the curb. [The adverb clause Before Albert went to school modifies the verb took.]

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs When adjectives and adverbs are used in comparisons, they take different forms. The specific form they take depends upon how many things are being compared. The different forms of comparison are called degrees of comparison.

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11 c

11c. The three degrees of comparison of modifiers are the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (1) The positive degree is used when at least one thing is being described. EXAMPLES

This suitcase is heavy. Luís cheerfully began the job. Those murals are colorful.

EXAMPLES

My suitcase is heavier than yours. Luís talked more cheerfully than Albert. Those murals are more colorful than these.

(3) The superlative degree is used when three or more things or groups of things are being compared. EXAMPLES

Sylvia’s suitcase is the heaviest of all. Of the four boys, Luís worked at the task most cheerfully.

STYLE

TIP

In conversation, you may hear and use expressions such as Put your best foot forward and May the best team win. Such uses of the superlative are acceptable in spoken English. However, in your writing for school and other formal occasions, you should generally use superlatives only when three or more things are compared.

Those murals are the most colorful ones I’ve seen.

Regular Comparison Most one-syllable modifiers form the comparative degree by adding –er and the superlative degree by adding –est. Positive

Comparative

Superlative

closer

closest

slow

slower

slowest

soon

sooner

soonest

straight

straighter

straightest

Reference Note For guidelines on how to spell words when adding –er or –est, see page 353.

HELP

Notice that both adjectives and adverbs form their degrees of comparison in the same way.

Here is a way to remember which form of a modifier to use. When comparing two things, use –er (the two-letter ending). When comparing three or more things, use –est (the three-letter ending).

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

225

USAGE

(2) The comparative degree is used when two things or groups of things are being compared.

STYLE

TIP

Many two-syllable modifiers can correctly form the comparative and superlative degrees using either the suffixes –er and –est or the words more and most. If adding –er or –est sounds awkward, use more or most.

USAGE

AWKWARD bitterer comicest BETTER more bitter most comic

Two-syllable modifiers form the comparative degree by adding –er or by using more. They form the superlative degree by adding –est or by using most. Positive

Comparative

Superlative

simple

simpler

simplest

easy

easier

easiest

jealous

more jealous

most jealous

swiftly

more swiftly

most swiftly

Modifiers that have three or more syllables form the comparative degree by using more and the superlative degree by using most. Positive

Comparative

Superlative

powerful

more powerful

most powerful

illegible

more illegible

most illegible

joyfully

more joyfully

most joyfully

attractively

more attractively

most attractively

Exercise 1

Forming the Degrees of Comparison of Modifiers

Give the forms for the comparative and superlative degrees of the following modifiers. EXAMPLE

1. near 2. proud 3. carefully 4. honestly 5. small

1. light 1. lighter; lightest

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

tiny timidly loyal safe shady

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

healthy tall grateful quick easy

16. confident 17. enthusiastically 18. dry 19. tasty 20. generous

Decreasing Comparison To show decreasing comparisons, modifiers form the comparative degree by using less and the superlative degree by using least.

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Positive

Comparative

Superlative

sharp costly often frequently

less sharp less costly less often less frequently

least sharp least costly least often least frequently

Irregular Comparison

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

bad

worse

worst

far

farther or further

farthest or furthest

good

better

best

well

better

best

many

most

much

most

Review A

USAGE

The comparative and superlative degrees of some modifiers are irregular in form.

Writing Comparative and Superlative Forms of Modifiers

Correctly complete each of the following sentences with the comparative or superlative form of the italicized adjective or adverb given. EXAMPLE

The Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, is one of the _____ buildings in the United States. 1. most unusual

1. big 2. pretty

The Corn Palace is ____ than I thought it would be. People in Mitchell try to make each year’s Corn Palace decorations ____ than the ones before. The building looks the ____ in September after new corn and grasses are put on it. Some workers find it ____ to saw and nail the corn to panels, while others prefer to hang the finished panels on the building.

3. fresh 4. easy

1. unusual

1. bigger 2. prettier [or more pretty] 3. freshest 4. easier [or more easy]

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

227

5. best

5. well

6. most mysterious

6. mysterious

7. most famous

7. famous

8. most interesting

8. interesting

9. more slowly

9. slowly 10. often

USAGE

10. more often

I could not decide which of the many corn murals on the Corn Palace I liked ____. The mural of the dancing figure was the ____ one to me. Until his death in 1983, Mitchell’s ____ artist, Oscar Howe, helped to design and paint these murals. The life of this Sioux artist is the ____ story I’ve ever heard. My parents walked ____ around the Corn Palace than I did and studied every design. I met a family from Mexico who had traveled ____ than we had to see the Corn Palace.

Special Problems in Using Modifiers 11d. Use good to modify a noun or a pronoun in most cases. Use well to modify a verb. EXAMPLES

Reference Note For more about using good and well, see page 249.

The weather was good on the day of the match. [Good modifies the noun weather.] If you want a pear, here is a good one. [Good modifies the pronoun one.] The trees are producing well this fall. [Well modifies the verb phrase are producing.]

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11 d, e

Good should not be used to modify a verb. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

Both teams played good. Both teams played well.

Reference Note

Although well is usually used as an adverb, well may also be used as an adjective meaning “in good health” or “in good condition.” Mom feels quite well today. [Meaning “in good health,” well modifies Mom.]

11e. Use adjectives, not adverbs, after linking verbs.

Reference Note For a list of linking verbs, see page 46.

Linking verbs are often followed by predicate adjectives modifying the subject. EXAMPLES

USAGE

EXAMPLE

For a discussion of standard and nonstandard English, see page 245.

Ingrid looked sleepy [not sleepily] this morning. [The predicate adjective sleepy modifies the subject Ingrid.] Christina felt uncertain [not uncertainly] about running in the relay race. [The predicate adjective uncertain modifies the subject Christina.]

NOTE

Some verbs can be used as either linking or action verbs. As action verbs, they may be modified by adverbs. EXAMPLES

Ingrid looked sleepily at the clock. [Sleepily modifies the action verb looked.] Christina uncertainly felt her way along the hall. [Uncertainly modifies the action verb felt.]

Exercise 2

Using Adjectives and Adverbs Correctly

Choose the adjective or adverb that will make each sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. John seems (nervous, nervously) about his speech. 1. nervous

1. When we came into the house after ice-skating, the fire felt (good, well). 2. The wind sounds (fierce, fiercely) at night. 3. Tino looked (good, well) after recovering from his operation. 4. After all, it doesn’t taste (bad, badly). 5. Venus looks (beautiful, beautifully) tonight. 6. Liang cooked a (good, well) meal of vegetables and shrimp. Special Problems in Using Modifiers

229

7. Is the sick child feeling (good, well) enough to eat something? 8. We looked (close, closely) at the fragile cocoon. 9. A cup of soup tastes (good, well) on a cold day. 10. Kudzu grows (rapid, rapidly) in the South. 11f. Avoid using double comparisons.

USAGE

A double comparison is the incorrect use of both –er and more (or less) or –est and most (or least) to form a comparison. When you make a comparison, use only one form, not both. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

This is Kathleen Battle’s most finest performance. This is Kathleen Battle’s finest performance.

NONSTANDARD STANDARD

His hair is more curlier than his sister’s. His hair is curlier than his sister’s.

NONSTANDARD

The baby is less fussier in the morning than in the evening. The baby is less fussy in the morning than in the evening.

STANDARD

Exercise 3

Correcting Double Comparisons

Identify the incorrect modifier in each of the following sentences. Then, give the correct form of the modifier. EXAMPLES

1. I have been studying more harder lately. 1. more harder—harder 2. Frederick Douglass was one of the most brilliantest speakers against slavery. 2. most brilliantest—most brilliant

1. Sunday was less rainier than Saturday. 1. rainy 2. That is the most saddest story I have ever heard. 3. Are you exercising more oftener than you used to? 4. That evening was the least cloudiest one in weeks. 4. cloudy 5. Native arctic peoples have learned to survive in the most coldest weather. 6. Please show me the most finest tennis racket in the shop. 7. It is more farther from New York to Montreal than from New York to Boston. 8. Grumpkins was less jollier than the other elves. 8. jolly 230

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11 f, g

9. Your suitcase is more lighter since you took out the boots. 10. Is Venus the most brightest object in the sky tonight?

Double Negatives 11g. Avoid using double negatives.

A double negative is the use of two or more negative words to express one negative idea. Most of the negative words in the chart below are adjectives or adverbs.

barely

never

none

nothing

hardly

no one

nowhere

neither

nobody

not (–n’t)

scarcely

NONSTANDARD STANDARD

We couldn’t hardly move in the subway car. We could hardly move in the subway car.

NONSTANDARD STANDARD STANDARD

Yolanda didn’t eat no breakfast this morning. Yolanda didn’t eat any breakfast this morning. Yolanda ate no breakfast this morning.

NONSTANDARD STANDARD STANDARD

Didn’t she get you nothing for your birthday? Didn’t she get you anything for your birthday? Did she get you nothing for your birthday?

Oral Practice

Correcting Double Negatives

Read each of the following sentences aloud. Then, say each sentence again, correcting the double negative. Revisions may vary. EXAMPLE

USAGE

Common Negative Words

1. I couldn’t find no one to go camping with me. 1. I couldn’t find anyone to go camping with me. or I could find no one to go camping with me.

1. I didn’t see no one I knew at the game. 2. Early Spanish explorers searched that area of Florida for gold, but they didn’t find none.

HELP Although two possible answers are given for the example in the Oral Practice, you need to give only one revision for each item.

1. anyone 2. any

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4. anything 6. any 7. any

10. anywhere

3. We couldn’t hardly hear the guest speaker. 4. The cafeteria didn’t serve nothing I like today. 5. Double negatives don’t have no place in standard English. 6. The bird-watchers saw scarcely no bald eagles this year. 7. The club officers never do none of the work themselves. 8. We wouldn’t never need three tractors on our small farm. 9. Jesse couldn’t barely see the top of the waterfalls. 10. The Paynes didn’t go nowhere special during the three-day holiday weekend. Review B

Using Modifiers Correctly

USAGE

Most of the following sentences contain errors in the use of modifiers. Revise each incorrect sentence to eliminate the error. If a sentence is already correct, write C. Revisions may vary. EXAMPLES

1. My cold is worst today than it was yesterday. 1. My cold is worse today than it was yesterday. 2. There wasn't nobody willing to go into that house alone. 2. There wasn't anybody willing to go into that house alone.

1. C

3. well 4. really 5. C [or well] 7. stronger 8. any 9. C 10. [or most simple]

1. She is the funnier of the two comedians. 2. Kendo, a Japanese martial art, is more gracefuller than many other sports. 3. No one in our class can play volleyball as good as Sylvia Yee. 4. Time passes real slowly during the summer. 5. After a long swim, she felt good. 6. I wasn’t scarcely able to hear you. 7. Which of the Rogers twins is strongest? 8. Some people don’t seem to have no control over their tempers. 9. He hardly ever visits us. 10. Of all the folk dances my grandfather taught me, the polka is the most simplest.

Placement of Modifiers 11h. Place modifying words, phrases, and clauses as close as possible to the words they modify. 232

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11 h

Notice how the meaning of the following sentence changes when the position of the phrase from Cincinnati changes. The basketball player from Cincinnati gave a TV interview for his fans. [The phrase modifies player.] The basketball player gave a TV interview for his fans from Cincinnati. [The phrase modifies fans.] From Cincinnati the basketball player gave a TV interview for his fans. [The phrase modifies gave.]

A modifier that seems to modify the wrong word in a sentence is called a misplaced modifier. A modifier that does not clearly modify another word in a sentence is called a dangling modifier. MISPLACED CORRECT

DANGLING CORRECT

Ringing, everyone glared at the man with the cell phone. Everyone glared at the man with the ringing cell phone. Before moving to Philadelphia, Mexico City was their home. Before moving to Philadelphia, they lived in Mexico City.

Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, a noun or a pronoun called the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of that object. A prepositional phrase used as an adjective generally should be placed directly after the word it modifies. MISPLACED CLEAR

STYLE

TIP

Be sure to place modifiers correctly to show clearly the meaning you intend. EXAMPLES Only Mrs. Garza teaches Spanish. [Mrs. Garza, not anybody else, teaches Spanish.] Mrs. Garza only teaches Spanish. [Mrs. Garza teaches Spanish; she does not research Spanish texts.] Mrs. Garza teaches only Spanish. [Mrs. Garza does not teach any other subjects.]

Reference Note For more about prepositions, see page 58. For more about prepositional phrases, see page 59.

The hat belongs to that girl with the feathers. The hat with the feathers belongs to that girl.

A prepositional phrase used as an adverb should be placed near the word it modifies. MISPLACED CLEAR

She read that a new restaurant had opened in today’s newspaper. She read in today’s newspaper that a new restaurant had opened.

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USAGE

EXAMPLES

COM P U T E R T I P

USAGE

A computer can help you find and correct problems with modifiers. For example, a spellchecker can easily find nonstandard forms such as baddest, expensiver, and mostest. However, you will need to examine the placement of phrase and clause modifiers yourself.

HELP Although some items in Exercise 4 can be revised in more than one way, you need to give only one revision for each. You may need to add, delete, or rearrange words.

Avoid placing a prepositional phrase so that it seems to modify either of two words. Place the phrase so that it clearly modifies the word you intend it to modify. MISPLACED CLEAR CLEAR

Exercise 4

Manuel said in the afternoon he would call Janet. [Does in the afternoon modify said or would call?] Manuel said he would call Janet in the afternoon. [The phrase modifies would call.] In the afternoon Manuel said he would call Janet. [The phrase modifies said.]

Revising Sentences with Misplaced Prepositional Phrases

Each of the following sentences contains a misplaced prepositional phrase. Decide where the prepositional phrase belongs; then, revise the sentence. Revisions will vary. EXAMPLES

1. In the United States, Zora Neale Hurston grew up in the first self-governed black township. 1. Zora Neale Hurston grew up in the first selfgoverned black township in the United States. 2. The cat toy rolled down the hall with a clatter. 2. With a clatter, the cat toy rolled down the hall.

1. Joshua and Reginald heard that there was a destructive hailstorm on the news. 2. The poster caught my eye on the wall. 3. In the tiny bird’s nest, we thought there might be eggs. 4. Our teacher said on Monday the class would put on a play. 5. Don’t forget to take the box to the store with the empty bottles. 6. We saw José Clemente Orozco’s beautiful murals on vacation in Guadalajara. 7. Tranh read that a wasp larva spins a cocoon in the encyclopedia. 8. A beautiful Bolivian weaving hangs on our living room wall from the town of.Trinidad. 9. Did you find the kimonos worn by your grandmother in that old trunk? 10. In confusion, they watched with amusement as the puppies scrambled all over each other.

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Placing Prepositional Phrases Correctly

EXAMPLE

1. Many paintings show strange, fantastical scenes. (by Marc Chagall) 1. Many paintings by Marc Chagall show strange, fantastical scenes.

1. Chagall’s The Green Violinist contains many delightful mysteries and surprises. (for the eye and mind) 2. As you can see in the painting, a gigantic violinist sits among the buildings of a small village. (with a green face and hand) 3. Dark windows look just like the windows of the houses. (on the musician’s pants) 4. A man waves to the violinist, and a dog taller than a house seems to smile at the music it hears. (above the clouds) 5. As you look at the painting’s bright colors, perhaps you can almost hear the enchanting music. (of the green violinist) 6. You may be surprised to learn that the fiddler is found in many of Chagall’s other works. (in this painting) 7. Chagall enjoyed listening to his uncle play the violin. (during his childhood) 8. The Green Violinist and other paintings of the fiddler are tributes. (to Chagall’s uncle) 9. In a painting titled Violinist, Chagall painted himself standing. (beside the violinist) 10. In that unusual painting, Chagall has three heads turned to show enjoyment of the music. (toward the uncle)

HELP Be careful to place each prepositional phrase in Exercise 5 near the word or words it modifies.

USAGE

Rewrite each of the following sentences, adding the prepositional phrase given in parentheses. Answers may vary.

The Granger Collection, New York

Exercise 5

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Participial Phrases

Reference Note For more information about participles, see page 98. For more about participial phrases, see page 100.

A participial phrase consists of a present participle or a past participle and its modifiers and complements. A participial phrase is used as an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun. Like a prepositional phrase, a participial phrase should be placed as close as possible to the word it modifies. EXAMPLES

USAGE

MEETING THE CHALLENGE A dangling modifier often occurs when a sentence is in the passive voice. Rewriting sentences in the active voice not only eliminates many dangling modifiers but also makes your writing more interesting and lively. The following sentence contains a dangling modifier. Rewrite the sentence in the active voice to remove the dangling modifier. Having just waxed the car, a trip to the fair was planned.

I. M. Pei, born in China, is a gifted architect. [The participial phrase modifies I. M. Pei.]

A participial phrase that is not placed near the noun or pronoun that it modifies is a misplaced modifier. MISPLACED

CLEAR

MISPLACED CLEAR MISPLACED

ANSWER Student responses will vary. Here is one possibility. Having just waxed the car, I planned a trip to the fair.

CLEAR

For more about active voice and passive voice, see page 189.

CLEAR

Exercise 6

Reference Note For more information on using commas with participial phrases, see pages 299 and 305.

Stolen from the media center, the deputies found the videocassette recorder. [Were the deputies stolen from the media center?] The deputies found the videocassette recorder stolen from the media center. Sleeping on the roof, I saw the neighbor’s cat. [Was I sleeping on the roof?] I saw the neighbor’s cat sleeping on the roof. We’re used to the noise living by the airport. [Is the noise living by the airport?] Living by the airport, we’re used to the noise.

A participial phrase that does not clearly and logically modify a word in the sentence is a dangling modifier. DANGLING

Reference Note

Walking to school, Celia and James found a wallet. [The participial phrase modifies Celia and James.]

Cleaning the attic, an old trunk was found. [Who was cleaning the attic?] Cleaning the attic, we found an old trunk.

Placing Participial Phrases Correctly

Rewrite each of the following sentences, adding the participial phrases given in parentheses. Be sure to use commas to set off participial phrases that begin or interrupt your sentences. Answers may vary.

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EXAMPLES

1. Finn and Darcy searched for their younger sister. (scanning the crowd) 1. Scanning the crowd, Finn and Darcy searched for their younger sister. 2. The sea turtle ducked back into its shell. (startled by the sound of the boat’s engine) 2. Startled by the sound of the boat’s engine, the sea turtle ducked back into its shell.

HELP Although some items in Exercise 6 can be revised in more than one way, you need to give only one revision for each.

Exercise 7

Revising Sentences to Correct Misplaced and Dangling Participial Phrases

Revise all of the sentences that contain misplaced or dangling participial phrases. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

USAGE

1. My older sister will be working at the garden center near my house. (beginning next week) 2. Our new kitten crawled under the sofa. (exploring the house) 3. By mistake, we sat on the swings. (freshly painted) 4. Lucy helped her brother find the books. (lost somewhere in his messy room) 5. Josie and Fred passed the playground. (walking through the park) 6. Ms. Surat told us about Sri Lanka and its people. (pointing to the map) 7. The two girls yelled loudly. (surprised by their little brother) 8. The horse likes to watch people. (munching on grass) 9. Andrea picked up her pencil and waited for the test to begin. (sharpened moments earlier) 10. On the beach this morning, the children found a mysterious note. (folded in a blue bottle)

1. Made from matzo meal, Rachel cooks tasty dumplings. 1. Rachel cooks tasty dumplings made from matzo meal.

HELP You will need to add, delete, or rearrange some words in your revisions for Exercise 7.

1. Pacing in its cage, I watched the lion. 2. Talking on the telephone, Amanda did not hear the doorbell ringing. 3. Exploring the cave, a new tunnel was discovered.

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USAGE

4. Wearing a bright orange suit and floppy yellow shoes, the circus featured a clown. 5. Filled with countless daisies, the two young girls walked slowly through the field. 6. Reading his part, the nervousness was hard to overcome. 7. The turkey was large enough for three families stuffed with sage and bread crumbs. 8. Tired from the long walk through the snow, food and rest were welcomed. 9. Checking the shelves, Judy found all the reference books she needed. 10. Selling the old farm, sadness welled up inside.

Adjective Clauses Reference Note For more about adjective clauses, see page 117.

An adjective clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. Most adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun—that, which, who, whom, or whose. Like an adjective phrase, an adjective clause should generally be placed directly after the word it modifies. MISPLACED CLEAR

MISPLACED CLEAR

Exercise 8

HELP Be sure to use commas to set off nonessential adjective clauses.

Reference Note For information on using commas to set off nonessential adjective clauses, see page 299.

Chapter 11

The girls thanked their coach who had won the relay race. [Did the coach win the relay race?] The girls who had won the relay race thanked their coach.

Revising Sentences with Misplaced Clause Modifiers

Revise each of the following sentences by placing the adjective clause near the word it should modify. EXAMPLE

238

The Labor Day picnic in the park that we had was fun. [Did we have the park?] The Labor Day picnic that we had in the park was fun.

1. My friend Beverly visited me who lives in Sarasota, Florida. 1. My friend Beverly, who lives in Sarasota, Florida, visited me.

1. The students received an A.who made the first presentation. 2. The kitten belongs to my neighbor.that is on the branch.

Using Modifiers Correctly

Review C

Correcting Errors in the Use of Modifiers

Each of the following sentences contains an error in the use, form, or placement of a modifier. Revise each sentence by changing the form of a modifier or by adding, deleting, or rearranging words. Answers may vary. EXAMPLE

USAGE

3. I showed the colorful cotton fabric to my sister.that was made in Kenya. 4. The doctor said that the triplets were quite healthy. who examined them. 5. The cleanup program was supported by all of the students. that the president of the seventh-grade class suggested. 6. The flight attendant welcomed us aboard the plane.whose brother I know. 7. The friend has a broken leg.whom I called. came in the mail., 8. Donald’s package is from his mother. which , 9. Quasars fascinate me.which many astronomers throughout , the world study., 10. The dog barked at the letter carrier. that has been running loose in the neighborhood.

1. I have never been more happier in my life. 1. I have never been happier in my life.

1. My stepsister plays both soccer and softball, but she likes soccer best. 1. better 2. The waiter brought plates to Terrell and me piled high with spaghetti and meat sauce. 2. to Terrell and me. 3. Very frustrated, her locker just would not open! 3. she just could not open 4. Barking and growling loudly, the stranger was frightened by the dogs. 4. the dogs frightened 5. The antique German cuckoo clock still runs good after all these years. 5. well 6. badly 6. I didn’t do too bad on the geography quiz this morning. 7. Our puppy is much more playfuller than our older dog is. 8. We walked slow past the duck pond to see if any new ducklings had hatched. 8. slowly 9. They never did find no sponsor for their team. 9. a 10. The CD is the soundtrack of my favorite movie.that we heard. 10. that we heard

HELP Although some sentences in Review C can be correctly revised in more than one way, you need to give only one revision for each sentence.

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Review D

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Use of Modifiers

1. Of all the important women featured in this book, Dolores S. Atencio is the one I admire more. 1. Of all the important women featured in this book, Dolores S. Atencio is the one I admire most.

USAGE

1. Her mother thought that a law career would offer her daughter the most brightest future. 2. Ms. Atencio always knew she would become a lawyer, but she didn’t never expect to be so successful. 3. Looking ahead to college and law school, her grades in high school were excellent. 4. Along with two other Hispanic women, her efforts helped to launch Denver’s first bilingual radio station in 1985. 5. Ms. Atencio felt quite proudly about helping to organize Colorado’s first minority women lawyers’ conference. 6. She decided to run for president of the Hispanic National Bar Association (HNBA) receiving encouragement from a friend. 7. Serving as president of HNBA, the legal rights of Hispanics were her main focus. 8. In 1991, she was named one of the most outstanding Hispanic women in Hispanic Business Magazine. 9. She also was given the Outstanding Young Woman Award from the city of Denver, which she received for all the time she had devoted to community service. 10. In addition to enjoying community service, Ms. Atencio feels really well when she is spending time with her family.

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CHAPTER

Chapter Review A. Using the Correct Modifier

1. [11e, a] 2. [11b] 3. [11e, a] 4. [11b] 5. [11d, b] 6. [11b] 7. [11b] 8. [11d, e, a] 9. [11e, a] 10. [11d, e, a] 11. [11c(3)] 12. [11d, b] 13. [11c(2)] 14. [11d, b] 15. [11c(2)]

Identify the word in parentheses that will make each sentence correct. 1. I have to admit that this recording sounds (bad, badly). 2. Our Irish setter came (shy, shyly) toward the new puppy. 3. Yoki was anxious, but she appeared (calm, calmly). 4. Must the twins play so (noisy, noisily)? 5. We’re pleased that you did so (good, well). 6. The storm ended as (sudden, suddenly) as it began. 7. With a little oil, the engine started (easy, easily). 8. Their performance is now (good, well) enough for any stage. 9. The kitchen counter looks (clean, cleanly). 10. It is (good, well) to be alive on a beautiful day like today. 11. Of the five designs, which one do you like (better, best)? 12. José Canseco played (good, well). 13. This ring is the (more, most) expensive of the two. 14. That striped tie would go (good, well) with your green shirt. 15. Choose the (larger, largest) of the two poodles.

USAGE

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by items in the Chapter Review.

B. Writing Comparative and Superlative Forms of Modifiers Write the comparative or superlative form of the italicized adjective or adverb in each of the following sentences. 16. drier [11c(2)] 17. more grateful [11c(2)] 18. smallest [11c(3)] 19. prouder [11c(2)] 20. slowest [11c(3)]

16. dry

17. grateful 18. small 19. proud 20. slow

The towels felt ____ after an afternoon on the clothesline than they had felt coming out of the washer. We were ____ for Mr. Chang’s advice than we could say. The screwdriver my father used to repair my glasses was the ____ one he had. After the awards ceremony, Kerry seemed ____ of her son than she ever had before. The ____ horse of them all finished last in the race. Chapter Review

241

21. enthusiastically [or most enthusiastically] [11c(1, 3)] 22. tastier [or more tasty] [11c(2)] 23. most loyal [11c(3)] 24. more easily [11c(2)] 25. tallest [11c(3)]

21. enthusiastically 22. tasty 23. loyal 24. easily 25. tall

Pleased by all the performances, the audience applauded ____ for the dancers. Since Dad started taking cooking classes, each dinner is ____ than the previous one. Tadger is the ____ of our three dogs. With more practice, we solved the second puzzle ____ than the first one. Which of the five Romine girls do you think is ____?

USAGE

C. Correcting Double Comparisons and Double Negatives Rewrite the following sentences to correct errors in the use of modifiers. Revisions may vary. 26. These Hawaiian shirts don’t have no pockets. 27. Pineapple juice tastes more sweeter than orange juice to me. 28. What is the most funniest thing that ever happened to you? 29. I can’t hardly take another step. 30. Sakima couldn’t barely catch her breath after running so far.

26. any [11g] 27. [11f] 28. [11f] 29. [11g] 30. [11g]

D. Correcting Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

31. bruised by the storm [11h] 32. that you heard [11h] 33. we left [11h] 34. When I opened [11h] 35. As my brother was / him [11h] 36. , born in Virginia, [11h] 37. While I was [11h] 38. , are using fish ladders [11h]

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Each sentence below contains a misplaced or dangling modifier. Rewrite the sentences so that they are clear. You may need to add, delete, or rearrange words. Revisions may vary. 31. The fruit was marked for quick sale.bruised by the storm. 32. Those tapes came from the library. that you heard. 33. After leaving India, Singapore was the next destination. 34. Opening a savings account, a form of identification was

required. 35. Skateboarding down the street, a large dog chased my brother. 36. Black Hawk was a chief of the Sauk people.born in Virginia. 37. Trying to study, the noise from the chainsaw was distracting. 38. These salmon are using fish ladders, which are returning to spawn.

Using Modifiers Correctly

39. Sifting carefully through the sand, an old Spanish coin called

a doubloon was found. 40. I saw the gazelles jumping through the binoculars.

39. she found [11h] 40. Through the binoculars, [11h]

Writing Application Using Comparisons in a Letter

USAGE

Comparative and Superlative Forms An anonymous donor has given a large sum of money for improvements to your school. Write a letter to the school administrators describing the improvements you would like to see made. Use at least three comparative and two superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs in your writing. Prewriting What facilities, equipment, or supplies would make your school a better place? List your improvement ideas. You may want to discuss your ideas with a classmate or a teacher before you select the ones to include in your letter. Also, note why the improvements are needed. Writing As you write your first draft, use your list to help you make clear and accurate comparisons. Keep your audience in mind. The administrators need practical suggestions for how to spend the money, so let them know exactly what improvements your school needs and why. Revising Read your letter to a parent or other adult to see if your arguments are convincing. Add, delete, or rearrange details to make your letter more interesting and effective. Publishing Be sure you have used the correct comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs. Check the form of your letter to make sure it follows the guidelines for business letters. Read through your letter a final time to catch any errors in spelling, grammar, usage, or punctuation. Share your ideas for improving the school with the rest of the class, and make a chart displaying the most popular suggestions.

Chapter Review

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CHAPTER

A Glossary of Usage Common Usage Problems

Diagnostic Preview Terms in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. all ready [already, all ready] 2. among [between, among] 3. bring [bring, take] 4. well [good, well] 5. [he, she, they] 6. teach [learn, teach] 7. [this here, that there] 8. have [could of] 9. used [use to, used to] 10. who [who, which, that] 11. all right [all right] 12. that [where] 13. They’re [their, there, they’re] 14. burst [bust, busted] 15. unless [without, unless] 16. than [than, then]

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Correcting Errors in Usage Each of the following sentences contains an error in the use of formal, standard English. Revise each sentence to correct the error. EXAMPLE

1. They did they’re best to help. 1. They did their best to help.

1. We are already for our trip to Washington, D.C. 2. They divided the crackers equally between the four toddlers. 3. Please take those packages here to me. 4. Elena had a cold, but she is feeling good now. 5. Mr. Chang he is my tai chi instructor. 6. Will you learn me how to play chess? 7. May I borrow that there collection of Cheyenne folk tales? 8. Tara might of come with us, but she had to baby-sit. 9. We use to live in Karachi, Pakistan. 10. She is the woman which owns the Great Dane. 11. I dropped the pictures, but I think they’re alright. 12. I read where Mayor Alvarez will visit our school. 13. Their the best players on the team this season. 14. The pipes busted last winter during a hard freeze. 15. We cannot go sailing without we wear life jackets. 16. Her new apartment is bigger then her last one.

A Glossary of Usage

About the Glossary This chapter contains an alphabetical list, or glossary, of many common problems in English usage. You will notice throughout the chapter that some examples are labeled nonstandard, standard, formal, or informal. Nonstandard English is language that does not follow the rules and guidelines of standard English. Standard English is language that is grammatically correct and appropriate in formal and informal situations. Formal identifies usage that is appropriate in serious speaking and writing situations (such as in speeches and compositions for school). The label informal indicates standard usage common in conversation and in everyday writing, such as personal letters. The following are examples of formal and informal English. Formal

Informal

angry

steamed

unpleasant

yucky

agreeable

cool

very impressive

totally awesome

a, an Use a before words beginning with a consonant sound. Use an before words beginning with a vowel sound. Keep in mind that the sound, not the actual letter, that a word begins with determines whether a or an should be used. EXAMPLES

17. everywhere [anyways, anywheres, everywheres, nowheres, somewheres] 18. as if [like, as if, as though] 19. that [when, where] 20. accept [accept, except] Reference Note For a list of words often confused, see page 358.

USAGE

17. The group went everywheres together. 18. Lydia acted like she was bored. 19. Antonyms are when words are opposite in meaning. 20. I hope that you will except my apology.

COM P U T E R T I P The spellchecker on a computer will help you catch misspelled words such as anywheres and nowheres. The grammar checker may help you catch errors such as double negatives. However, in the case of words that are often misused, such as than and then and between and among, you will have to check your work yourself for correct usage.

They are building a hospital near our house. I bought a one-way ticket. [Even though o is a vowel, the word one begins with a consonant sound.] I would like an orange. We worked for an hour. [Although h is a consonant, the word hour begins with a vowel sound. The h is not pronounced.]

HELP In doing the exercises in this chapter, be sure to use only standard English.

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245

accept, except Accept is a verb; it means “to receive.” Except may be used as either a verb or a preposition. As a verb, it means “to leave out.” As a preposition, except means “excluding.” EXAMPLES

Ann accepted the gift. [verb] No one will be excepted from writing a research paper. [verb] All my friends will be there except Jorge. [preposition]

ain’t Do not use this nonstandard word in formal situations.

USAGE

all right Used as an adjective, all right means “satisfactory” or “unhurt.” Used as an adverb, all right means “well enough.” All right should be written as two words. EXAMPLES

Your science project looks all right to me. [adjective] Judy cut her toe, but she is all right now. [adjective] I did all right in the drama club tryouts. [adverb]

STYLE

TIP

Many writers overuse a lot. Whenever you run across a lot as you revise your own writing, try to replace it with a more exact word or phrase.

a lot A lot should be written as two words. EXAMPLE

I have read a lot of American Indian folk tales.

already, all ready Already means “previously.” All ready means “completely prepared.” EXAMPLES

By 5:00 P.M., I had already cooked dinner. The students were all ready for the trip.

ACCEPTABLE Emily Dickinson wrote a lot of poems.

among

BETTER Emily Dickinson wrote hundreds of poems.

anyways, anywheres, everywheres, nowheres, somewheres These words should have no final s. EXAMPLE

See between, among.

I looked everywhere [not everywheres] for it!

See like, as.

as if, as though at

See like, as if, as though.

Do not use at after where.

NONSTANDARD STANDARD

Where are the Persian miniatures at? Where are the Persian miniatures?

bad, badly Bad is an adjective. It modifies nouns and pronouns. Badly is an adverb. It modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 246

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The fruit tastes bad. [The predicate adjective bad modifies fruit.] Don’t treat him badly. [The adverb badly modifies the verb Do treat.]

Exercise 1

Identifying Correct Usage

For each of the following sentences, choose the word or word group in parentheses that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard usage. EXAMPLE

1. Navajo people came to the American Southwest from (somewhere, somewheres) in the North. 1. somewhere

STYLE

TIP

The expression feel badly has become acceptable in informal situations although it is not strictly grammatical English. INFORMAL Carl felt badly about losing the race. FORMAL Carl felt bad about losing the race.

1. One group of Navajos settled in the region where the Pueblo people (lived, lived at). 2. The Pueblo people were (already, all ready) farming and living in permanent dwellings by the time the Navajos arrived. 3. The Navajos may have (excepted, accepted) the practice of sand painting from the Pueblos and adapted it to fit their own customs. 4. When the Navajo artists are (all ready, already) to begin a sand painting, they gather in a circle, as shown in the picture here. 5. When creating a sand painting, (a, an) artist receives directions from the singer, who leads the ceremony. 6. The painter might make a certain design when things are not (all right, allright) in the community. 7. The Navajo sand painter may also use this art to help someone who is injured or feeling (badly, bad). 8. Because sand paintings used in healing ceremonies are swept away at the end of each ceremony, the designs are recorded nowhere (accept, except) in the artist’s imagination. 9. However, the patterns used in sand painting (ain’t, aren’t) limited to this art form. 10. Variations of the sacred designs can be found almost (anywheres, anywhere) on items that the Navajos make. A Glossary of Usage

247

USAGE

EXAMPLES

between, among Use between when referring to two items at a time, even when they are part of a group consisting of more than two. EXAMPLES

Who was standing between you and Sue? Between the season’s track meets, I trained very hard. [Although there may have been more than two meets, the training occurred between any two of them.] There isn’t much difference between these three brands of juice. [Although there are more than two brands, each one is being compared with the others separately.]

USAGE

Use among when referring to a group rather than to separate individuals. EXAMPLES

We divided the burritos among the five of us. There was much discussion among the governors about the new tax plan. [The governors are thought of as a group.]

bring, take Bring means “to come carrying something.” Take means “to go carrying something.” Think of bring as related to come (to), take as related to go (from). EXAMPLES

Please bring that chair here. Now take this one over there.

bust, busted Avoid using these words as verbs in formal English. Use a form of either burst or break or catch or arrest. EXAMPLES

The pipe burst [not busted] after the storm. The Japanese raku vase broke [not busted] when it fell. Mom caught [not busted] our dog Pepper digging in the garden. Did the police arrest [not bust] the burglar?

Reference Note For more about double negatives, see page 231.

can’t hardly, can’t scarcely The words hardly and scarcely are negative words. They should not be used with another negative word. EXAMPLES

I can [not can’t] hardly wait to hear your new CD. We had [not hadn’t] scarcely enough food for everyone at the Juneteenth picnic.

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could of Do not write of with the helping verb could. Write could have. Also avoid ought to of, should of, would of, might of, and must of. EXAMPLES

Abdullah could have [not could of ] helped us. You should have [not should of ] hung the piñata higher.

don’t, doesn’t See page 162. everywheres

See anyways, etc.

except See accept, except.

EXAMPLES

USAGE

fewer, less Fewer is used with plural words. Less is used with singular words. Fewer tells “how many”; less tells “how much.” We had expected fewer guests. Please use less salt.

good, well Good is an adjective. Do not use good to modify a verb; use well, which can be used as an adverb. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

The steel-drum band played good. The steel-drum band played well.

Although it is usually used as an adverb, well is also used as an adjective to mean “healthy.” EXAMPLE

had of

I did not feel well yesterday.

See of.

had ought, hadn’t ought used with had. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

The verb ought should not be

You had ought to learn to dance the polka. You hadn’t ought to be late for class. You ought to learn to dance the polka. or You should learn to dance the polka. You oughtn’t to be late for class. or You shouldn’t be late for class.

HELP Feel good and feel well mean different things. Feel good means “to feel happy or pleased.” Feel well simply means “to feel healthy.” EXAMPLES Helping others makes me feel good. I went home because I didn’t feel well. Reference Note For more information about using good and well, see page 228.

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Exercise 2

Identifying Correct Usage

For each of the following sentences, choose the word or word group in parentheses that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard usage. EXAMPLE

1. Bike riders (had ought, ought) to know some simple rules of safety. 1. ought

USAGE

1. Just about (everywheres, everywhere) you go these days, you see people riding bikes. 2. Riders who wear helmets have (fewer, less) major injuries than riders who don’t. 3. When Aunt Shirley came for a visit, she (brought, took) her bicycle with her. 4. In choosing clothes, cyclists (can hardly, can’t hardly) go wrong by wearing bright, easy-to-see colors. 5. On busy streets, groups of cyclists should ride in single file and leave space (among, between) their bikes in case of sudden stops. 6. Members of cycling clubs decide (between, among) themselves on special communication signals. 7. A cyclist who is involved in an accident should not try to ride home, even if he or she seems to feel (well, good). 8. The cyclist should call a family member or friend who can (bring, take) both the rider and the bike home. 9. A tire that is punctured can usually be patched, but you may not be able to fix one that has (burst, busted). 10. Many of the cycling accidents that have happened over the years (could of, could have) been avoided if cyclists and motorists had been more careful. Review A

Proofreading for Correct Usage

Each of the following sentences contains an error in formal, standard English usage. Identify each error. Then, write the correct word or words. EXAMPLE

1. burst 2. fewer

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1. Don’t almonds grow somewheres in Africa? 1. somewheres—somewhere

1. Check the hoses to see whether a seal has busted. 2. When rainfall is low here, there are less rabbits because there are not as many plants for them to eat.

A Glossary of Usage

3. I didn’t know you could program computers that good. 4. Except for the spelling errors, you could of gotten an A. 5. Tracy’s new hamster has all ready escaped. 6. Even a ten-ton truck can’t hardly haul a load this size. 7. That bull ain’t likely to appreciate anybody trespassing on his property. 8. Bring a glass of ice water outside to your father. 9. Chutzpah is a term applied to people who have alot of nerve. 10. You really had ought to hear Thelonious Monk’s music.

3. well 4. have 5. already 6. can 7. isn’t 8. Take 9. a lot

NONSTANDARD STANDARD

USAGE

he, she, they Do not use a pronoun along with its antecedent as the subject of a verb. This error is called the double subject. Michael Jordan he was named Most Valuable Player. Michael Jordan was named Most Valuable Player.

hisself, theirself, theirselves These words are nonstandard English. Use himself and themselves. EXAMPLES

Bob hurt himself [not hisself ] during the game. They served themselves [not theirselves] last.

how come In informal English, how come is often used instead of why. In formal English, why is preferred. INFORMAL FORMAL

How come caribou migrate? Why do caribou migrate?

its, it’s Its is a personal pronoun in the possessive case. It’s is a contraction of it is or it has. EXAMPLES

The kitten likes its new home. [possessive pronoun] We have Monday off because it’s Rosh Hashana. [contraction of it is] It’s been a long day. [contraction of It has]

kind, sort, type The words this, that, these, and those should agree in number with the words kind, sort, and type. This and that are singular. These and those are plural. EXAMPLES

That kind of watch is expensive. [singular] Those kinds of jokes are silly. [plural]

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kind of, sort of In informal English, kind of and sort of are often used to mean “somewhat” or “rather.” In formal English, somewhat or rather is preferred. INFORMAL FORMAL

I feel kind of tired. I feel somewhat tired.

learn, teach Learn means “to acquire knowledge.” Teach means “to instruct” or “to show how.” EXAMPLES

My brother is learning how to drive. The driving instructor is teaching him.

USAGE

leave, let Leave means “to go away” or “to depart from.” Let means “to allow” or “to permit.” NONSTANDARD STANDARD STANDARD

less

See fewer, less.

lie, lay Reference Note For more information about prepositional phrases, see page 90. For more about clauses, see Chapter 6.

Leave her go to the movie. Let her go to the movie. Let’s leave on time for the movie.

See page 193.

like, as Like is used as a preposition to introduce a prepositional phrase. In informal English, like is often used before a clause as a conjunction meaning “as.” In formal English, as is preferred. EXAMPLES

Your uncle’s hat looked like a sombrero. [Like introduces the phrase like a sombrero.] Marcia trained every day as the coach had suggested. [As the coach had suggested is a clause and needs the conjunction as, not the preposition like, to introduce it.]

like, as if, as though In formal, standard English, like should not be used for the subordinating conjunction as if or as though. EXAMPLES

The Swedish limpa bread looks as if [not like] it is ready. The car looks as though [not like] it needs to be washed.

might of, must of

See could of.

nowheres See anyways, etc. 252

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Exercise 3

Identifying Correct Usage

For each of the following sentences, choose the word or word group in parentheses that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard usage. EXAMPLE

1. Young rattlesnakes (learn, teach) themselves to make a rattling noise by imitating their parents. 1. teach

Review B

USAGE

1. (Its, It’s) a sound that most people have learned to dread. 2. The snake’s rattle consists of “buttons” of flesh at the end of (its, it’s) tail, which are shaken against rings of loose skin. 3. The rings of skin (themselves, theirselves) are fragile. 4. (Like, As) zookeepers have discovered, snakes that rattle at visitors all day may damage their rattles. 5. (This kind, These kind) of snake delivers a poisonous bite, but rattlesnakes do not attack unless threatened. 6. Not all scientists agree about (how come, why) certain snakes have rattles. 7. According to many scientists, rattlesnakes (they use, use) the rattling sound to frighten enemies. 8. Some scientists believe that snakes use the rattles (as, like) other animals use different sounds—to communicate with each other. 9. Snakes don’t have ears; however, they are (sort of, rather) sensitive to sound vibrations. 10. When people hear a rattlesnake, they may react (like, as if ) the situation is an emergency—and it often is. Proofreading for Correct Usage

Each of the following sentences contains an error in formal, standard English usage. Identify each error. Then, write the correct word or words. EXAMPLE

1. I should of known that the painting on the next page was done by Grandma Moses. 1. should of—should have

1. My art teacher gave me a assignment to write a report about any artist I chose. 2. Between all the artists that I considered, Grandma Moses appealed to me the most.

1. an 2. Among

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USAGE

3. I went to the library and looked for a quiet place where I could do my research at. 4. I learned that Anna Mary Robertson Moses didn’t start painting until she was all ready in her seventies. 5. By then, her children were grown, and she had less responsibilities. 6. Grandma Moses had no art teacher accept herself. 7. As you can see in the selfportrait Rockabye, Grandma Grandma Moses, Rockabye. Copyright © 1987, Grandma Moses Properties Co., New York. Moses felt well about her role as a grandmother. 4. already 8. You can’t hardly help feeling that Grandma Moses really 5. fewer loves these children. 6. except 9. My sister Kim likes this painting alot. 7. good 10. My report is already for class now, and I can’t wait to tell my 9. a lot classmates about Grandma Moses. 10. all ready of Do not use of with prepositions such as inside, off, and outside. EXAMPLES

We waited outside [not outside of ] the theater for the ticket window to open. The glass fell off [not off of ] the table. Only Muslims are allowed inside [not inside of ] the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia.

Of is also unnecessary with the verb had. EXAMPLE

If we had [not had of ] tried harder, we would have won.

ought to of

See could of.

real In informal English, the adjective real is often used as an adverb meaning “very” or “extremely.” In formal English, very, extremely, or another adverb is preferred. INFORMAL FORMAL

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The new car is real quiet. The new car is very quiet.

rise, raise

See page 191. See he, etc. MEETING THE CHALLENGE

should of See could of. sit, set See page 190. some, somewhat Do not use some for the adverb somewhat. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

I like classical music some. I like classical music somewhat.

somewheres See anyways, etc. sort See kind, etc. sort of take

See kind of, etc.

See bring, take.

teach See learn, teach. than, then Than is a subordinating conjunction used in comparisons. Then is an adverb meaning “next” or “after that.” EXAMPLES

that

I sing better than I act. We’ll eat first, and then we’ll ride our bikes.

A mnemonic is a device, often a rhyme or visual aid, used as an aid to remembering. Choose two entries from this chapter (try to pick usage problems that you have trouble with). Create a mnemonic device of your own for each of the entries you picked. See examples of mnemonics in the Tips and Tricks on pages 360, 365, and 367. Reference Note For information about subordinating conjunctions, see page 121. For more about adverbs, see page 54.

See who, etc.

that there See this here, that there. their, there, they’re Their is the possessive form of they. There is used to mean “at that place” or to begin a sentence. They’re is a contraction of they are. EXAMPLES

Do you have their CDs? The lake is over there. There are five movie theaters in town. [There begins the sentence but does not add to its meaning.] They’re writing a report on the poet Américo Paredes.

theirself, theirselves

See hisself, etc.

them Them should not be used as an adjective. Use these or those. EXAMPLE

they

Where did you put those [not them] papers?

See he, etc. A Glossary of Usage

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USAGE

she, he, they

this here, that there needed after this and that. EXAMPLE

The words here and there are not

I like this [not this here] Chinese dragon kite, but I like that [not that there] one better.

this kind, sort, type

See kind, etc.

try and In informal English, try and is often used for try to. In formal English, try to is preferred. INFORMAL FORMAL

USAGE

type

I will try and be there early. I will try to be there early.

See kind, etc.

Exercise 4

Identifying Correct Usage

For each of the following sentences, choose the word or word group in parentheses that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard usage. EXAMPLE

1. The Amish people (try and, try to) maintain a simple, traditional way of life. 1. try to

1. In the early 1700s, the Amish were not allowed to practice (their, they’re, there) religion in Germany and Switzerland. 2. Hearing that there was more freedom in the Americas (than, then) in Europe, the Amish left their homes and settled in North America. 3. Since that time, they have remained (outside of, outside) the mainstream of American life. 4. The Amish work (real, very) hard at producing organically grown crops. 5. In Amish communities such as (this, this here) one, modern conveniences such as telephones, cars, and televisions are not used. 6. The closeness of Amish family life is evident in the way (these, them) people build their homes. 7. (They’re, There, Their) are often three generations—grandparents, parents, and children—living in a large residence made up of several houses.

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USAGE

8. Pictures and photographs are not allowed (inside of, inside) Amish homes, but the Amish brighten their plain houses with colorful pillows, quilts, and rugs. 9. If an Amish person gets sick, he or she is almost always cared for by family members rather (than, then) by a doctor. 10. The Amish way of life might surprise you (somewhat, some), yet Amish communities have thrived in North America for nearly three hundred years. Oral Practice

Correcting Errors in Usage

Each of the following sentences contains an error in the use of formal, standard English. Read the sentences aloud, and identify each error. Then, say each sentence again, this time correcting the error. EXAMPLE

1. It was real cold that spring! 1. real—It was extremely cold that spring!

1. Few people commanded more respect and admiration then Mother Teresa did. 2. Nobody can dance like you do, Ariel. 3. These sort of questions can be found on every standardized test. 4. Oh, no! The baby’s gotten oatmeal all over hisself. 5. The structure of molecules like these, it can most easily be understood by building a model. 6. What I want to know is how come we can’t go to the concert. 7. Who learned your dog all those tricks?

1. than 2. as 3. sorts [or This sort of question] 4. himself 6. why 7. taught

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8. those

10. to

8. A howdah is one of them seats that have a canopy and that sit on a camel or an elephant. 9. The RV campsite is just outside of town. 10. Mrs. Whitfield will try and explain how the European Economic Community is organized. use to, used to Don’t leave off the d when you write used to. The same advice applies to supposed to. EXAMPLE

Gail used to [not use to] be on the softball team.

way, ways EXAMPLE

USAGE

well

Use way, not ways, in referring to a distance.

Do we have a long way [not ways] to drive?

See good, well.

when, where Do not use when or where incorrectly to begin a definition. NONSTANDARD STANDARD

where EXAMPLE

A homophone is when a word sounds like another word but has a different meaning and spelling. A homophone is a word that sounds like another word but has a different meaning and spelling.

Do not use where for that. Did you read in the newsletter that [not where] the teen center is closing?

who, which, that The relative pronoun who refers to people only. Which refers to things only. That refers to either people or things. EXAMPLES

Jolene is the one who called. [person] Here is the salad, which is my favorite part of the meal. [thing] The book that you want is here. [thing] This is the salesperson that helped me choose the gift. [person]

who, whom

See page 211.

whose, who’s Whose is used as the possessive form of who and as an interrogative pronoun. Who’s is a contraction of who is or who has. 258

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EXAMPLES

Whose book is this? [possessive pronoun] Whose is this? [interrogative pronoun] Who’s the new student? [contraction of Who is] Who’s read “A Walk to the Jetty”? [contraction of Who has]

without, unless Do not use the preposition without in place of the conjunction unless. EXAMPLE

I can’t go unless [not without] I ask Dad.

would of

See could of.

EXAMPLES

USAGE

your, you’re Your is the possessive form of you. You’re is the contraction of you are. Your Saint Patrick’s Day party was great! You’re a good friend.

Exercise 5

Identifying Correct Usage

For each of the following sentences, choose the word or word group in parentheses that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard usage. EXAMPLE

1. Last week I received a letter from Sandra Joyce, (who’s, whose) a good friend of mine. 1. who’s

1. When I opened the envelope, I saw (where, that) she had sent me chopsticks and these instructions. 2. “I thought you’d like (you’re, your) own pair of chopsticks, with instructions showing how to use them,” Sandra wrote. 3. Instructions like the ones Sandra sent me are helpful because chopsticks can be hard to use (unless, without) you are shown how. 4. In the letter, Sandra told me (that, where) she and her family had been to New York. 5. Because Sandra lives in a small town, she wasn’t (use, used) to the crowds. A Glossary of Usage

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USAGE

6. She enjoyed visiting her grandparents, (who’s, whose) home is near Chinatown, on Manhattan Island. 7. While her family was eating in a Chinese restaurant, one of the servers, (which, who) was very helpful, showed her how to use chopsticks. 8. “(Your, You’re) not going to believe this,” she wrote, “but by the end of the meal, I was using chopsticks quite well.” 9. Etiquette is (when you use good manners, the use of good manners); Sandra wondered whether using chopsticks to eat Chinese food was a matter of etiquette or of skill. 10. I’ll write Sandra that I have a long (ways, way) to go before I’m an expert in using chopsticks. Review C

Proofreading for Correct Usage

Each of the following sentences contains an error in the use of formal, standard English. Rewrite each sentence to correct the error. Answers may vary. EXAMPLE

1. your 2. there 3. unless 4. who [or that] 5. When a plane flies low and fast over the runway, it is “buzzing the runway.” 6. that 7. why do I win every time I wear it? 8. used 9. to 10. it’s

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1. If the quarterback can’t play, whose the backup? 1. If the quarterback can’t play, who’s the backup?

1. Are you selling you’re old bike or one of theirs? 2. If they’re not their, you can have their seats. 3. Don’t go outside without you wear those galoshes! 4. Is Alfonso García Robles the man which was awarded the 1982 Nobel Peace Prize? 5. “Buzzing the runway” is when a plane flies low and fast over the runway. 6. I read where the word Nippon means “where the sun rises.” 7. If this hat isn’t lucky, then how come every time I wear it, I win? 8. Yes, I use to live in Madrid. 9. Please try and be ready on time tonight. 10. Listen to Lydia’s new poem; its dedicated to Queen Liliuokalani.

A Glossary of Usage

CHAPTER

Chapter Review A. Identifying Correct Usage

1. [fewer, less] 2. [like, as if, as though] 3. [kind, sort, type] 4. [bad, badly] 5. [like, as] 6. [between, among] 7. [its, it’s] 8. [their, there, they’re] 9. [than, then] 10. [your, you’re] 11. [who, which, that] 12. [where] 13. [whose, who’s] 14. [bust, busted] 15. [a lot] 16. [all right] 17. [bring, take] 18. [could of] 19. [some, somewhat] 20. [learn, teach] 21. [a, an] 22. [ain’t] 23. [leave, let] 24. [had ought, hadn’t ought] 25. [all right]

For each of the following sentences, choose the word or word group in parentheses that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard English usage. Helene made (fewer, less) mistakes this time. That restaurant looks (as if, like) it might be nice. Those (kind, kinds) of games are easy to learn. Terrance felt (badly, bad) about losing the house key. Leticia practiced an hour every day (like, as) her teacher had recommended. 6. Divide the sheet music (among, between) the three musicians. 7. We brought the juice, but (it’s, its) still in the car. 8. Both cars had pinstripes painted on (their, there) hoods. 9. The rice will feed more people (then, than) the bread will. 10. “(Your, You’re) a polite young man,” Aunt Henrietta told Jason. 11. There’s the police officer (which, who) helped me yesterday. 12. Did you see in the newspaper (that, where) farmers are losing their crops because of the drought? 13. Chika is the woman (whose, who’s) going to be my math tutor. 14. The child cried out when her balloon (busted, burst). 15. Vincent van Gogh did not receive (a lot, alot) of recognition during his lifetime. 16. Just do your best, and everything will be (allright, all right). 17. Will you (take, bring) that National Geographic to me? 18. Elyssa must (of, have) left her wallet here. 19. Petra likes salsa music (somewhat, some). 20. Can your brother (learn, teach) me how to play the drums? 21. Let the bread rise for (a, an) hour, and then put it in the oven. 22. Is Emily coming to the party, or (ain’t, isn’t) she? 23. (Leave, Let) me walk to the concert by myself. 24. We (should not, hadn’t ought to) let the cat eat whatever it wants. 25. With contacts, I can see (all right, alright). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Chapter Review

USAGE

Terms in brackets refer to concepts tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

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B. Proofreading for Correct Usage

USAGE

Read each sentence below, and decide whether it contains an error in the use of formal, standard English. If the sentence contains an error in usage, rewrite the sentence correctly. If the sentence is already correct, write C. Answers may vary. 26. very [real] 27. unless [without] 28. [of ] 29. C [like, as if ] 30. to [try and] 31. [at] 32. broken [bust, busted] 33. C [could of] 34. rather [kind of ] 35. [this here] 36. used [use to] 37. [he, she, they] 38. why [how come] 39. somewhere [anyways] 40. C [had ought] 41. those [them] 42. There [their, there] 43. accept [accept] 44. that [when, where] 45. already [already] 46. can [can’t hardly] 47. way [way, ways] 48. C [real; good, well] 49. himself [hisself ] 50. C [its, it’s; doesn’t, don’t]

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26. Try to be real quiet while you are inside the library. 27. We cannot ride our bikes without it stops raining. 28. Be careful not to knock the lamp off of the table. 29. The cartoon page looks as if it got wet. 30. I told Gretchen to try and keep still. 31. Where’s the salt shaker at? 32. Robbie said that the lock on the back door is busted. 33. Andrea thought we should have turned right at the

stop sign. 34. Mr. Funicello seems kind of uncomfortable. 35. This here poem would be easier to memorize than that one. 36. Before 1920, farmers use to grow strawberries here. 37. My grandmother she worked in a factory when she was my age. 38. Sakura knows how come the play was canceled. 39. Those game tickets are somewheres in this drawer. 40. Before our trip, we ought to buy a map. 41. Where did Rory put them CDs? 42. Their are two bridges downriver. 43. The tollbooth will except quarters and dimes but not pennies. 44. A pronoun is when a word is used in place of a noun. 45. By noon we had all ready seen Mr. Kerr’s film. 46. The class can’t hardly wait to go on the field trip to the power plant. 47. The Immerguts have a long ways to drive to visit their grandparents. 48. My older sister is doing very well in law school. 49. In the final seconds of the game, Lee tripped hisself and missed the winning basket. 50. It’s true: Mimi doesn’t want to come to the New Year’s Eve party.

A Glossary of Usage

Writing Application Writing a Speech Using Formal English A local television station has started a new program called Sound-Off. Each speaker on the program gets five minutes on the air to express an opinion about a community issue. Choose a topic that you think is important, and write a speech to submit to the TV station. Use only formal, standard English in your speech.

USAGE

Prewriting First, choose a specific topic that interests you. List important facts and information about the issue. Do you have all the information you need? If not, do some research at your school or local library. Also, be sure to include your own feelings and opinions about your topic. Finally, make a rough outline of what you want to say. Writing Use your notes and outline to help you write a draft of your speech. Try to write a lively introduction that will grab your listeners’ attention. In your introduction, give a clear statement of opinion. Then, discuss each supporting point in a paragraph or two. Conclude your speech by restating your main point. Revising Ask a friend to time you as you read your speech aloud. Then, ask your friend the following questions: • Is the main idea clear? • Does the speech give useful information? Publishing Proofread your speech for errors in grammar or formal, standard usage. You and your classmates may want to present your speeches to the class. You might also want to investigate whether a local TV or radio program would allow you to give your speeches on the air.

Chapter Review

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CHAPTER

Capital Letters Rules for Capitalization

Diagnostic Preview

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. [13d(6), g(3)] 2. [13g(3), c] 3. [13d(1), g(1)] 4. [13d(1, 2)] 5. C [13d(2, 4)] 6. [13d(4)] 7. [13d(4), g(1), d(1)] 8. [or President] [13d(1, 6), g(1)] 9. [13d(1), f, d(2)]

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Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization Write each word that requires capitalization in the following sentences. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Next saturday rachel and i will get to watch the taping of our favorite TV show. 1. Saturday, Rachel, I

1. The curtiss soap corporation sponsors the television show called three is two too many. 2. The show’s theme song is “you and i might get by.” 3. My favorite actor on the show is joe fontana, jr., who plays the lovable dr. mullins. 4. The female lead, janelle bledsoe, used to go to our junior high school right here in houston, texas. 5. The action is set in the West just after the Civil War. 6. The program is on monday nights, except during the summer. 7. One episode took place at a fourth of july picnic, at which dr. mullins challenged the sheriff to a grapefruit-eating contest. 8. Ms. Bledsoe plays a teacher who is married to Mr. reginald wilson foster II, president of the flintsville National bank. 9. Mrs. foster teaches latin, home economics, and arithmetic I at flintsville’s one-room school.

Capital Letters

10. [or Mayor’s] [13g(1, 2), d(1)] 11. C [13g(2)] 12. [13c, d(9, 3)] 13. [13g(2), d(1, 2)] 14. [13d(4, 1, 11, 8)] 15. [13g(1), d(1, 5)] 16. [13d(6, 3)] 17. [or Senator] [13e, d(1), g(1)] 18. [13d(2, 3)] 19. [13g(1), d(1), e, g(3)] 20. [13d(2, 7)] 21. [13d(1, 6), g(1), e, d(3)] 22. [13d(10, 2)] 23. [13d(2, 3)] 24. [13d(8, 2)] 25. MI should be written with two capitals. [13d(6, 2)]

Diagnostic Preview

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10. One local character, uncle ramón, once played a practical joke on judge grimsby right outside the mayor’s office. 11. Some people, including my mother, think that the program is silly, but my father enjoys watching it occasionally. 12. Even i don’t think it will receive an emmy from the academy of television arts and sciences. 13. When grandma murray and aunt edna from mobile, alabama, visited us, they watched the program. 14. In that monday night’s show, an alien named romax from the planet zarko stayed at the sidewinder hotel. 15. The alien, who looked like president zachary taylor, spoke english perfectly and could read people’s minds. 16. He settled a dispute between the union pacific railroad and the flintsville ranchers’ association. 17. In another show a united states senator and romax discussed their views of justice. 18. In the silliest show, the people in the next town, longview, thought that a sea monster was living in lake cranberry and reported it to the department of the interior. 19. A week later, mayor murdstone lost the only copy of his secret recipe for irish stew and saw the recipe in the next issue of the flintsville weekly gazette. 20. One time a mysterious stranger appeared, claiming he had sailed around cape horn on the ship the gem of the ocean. 21. Another time, the wealthy landowner mabel platt hired the law firm of crumbley, lockwood, and starr to sue mayor murdstone and threatened to take the case all the way to the united states supreme court. 22. In the next episode, a buddhist priest who just happened to be traveling through the west on his way back to china stopped off in flintsville. 23. Once, when someone mistakenly thought he had found gold down at cutter’s creek, thousands of prospectors flocked to flintsville, including three bank-robbing members of the feared gumley Gang. 24. The programs are taped before a live audience in the metro theater in los angeles, california. 25. You can get tickets to be in the audience by writing to curtiss soap corporation, 151 holly avenue, deerfield, mi 49238.

Using Capital Letters Correctly 13a. Capitalize the first word in every sentence.

Reference Note For more about using capital letters in quotations, see page 323.

EXAMPLES

My dog knows several tricks. Does yours?

The first word of a directly quoted sentence should begin with a capital letter. EXAMPLE

Mrs. Hernandez said, “Don’t forget to bring your contributions for the bake sale.”

Traditionally, the first word of every line of poetry begins with a capital letter. EXAMPLE

In the night The rain comes down. Yonder at the edge of the earth There is a sound like cracking, There is a sound like falling. Down yonder it goes on slowly rumbling. It goes on shaking.

MECHANICS

From “In the Night” from Singing for Power: The Song Magic of the Papago Indians of Southern Arizona, by Ruth Murray Underhill. Copyright  1938, 1966 by The Regents of University of California. Reprinted by permission of University of California Press. NOTE

Some modern poets do not follow this style. If you are using a quotation from a poem, be sure to use the capitalization that the poet uses.

Reference Note For information on using colons in letters, see page 312. For information on using commas in letters, see page 307.

13b. Capitalize the first word in both the salutation and the closing of a letter. SALUTATIONS CLOSINGS

Dear Service Manager: Dear Emily, Sincerely, Yours truly,

13c. Capitalize the pronoun I. EXAMPLE

13d. Capitalize proper nouns.

Reference Note For more about common nouns and proper nouns, see page 26.

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This week I have to write two essays.

A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns are capitalized. A common noun names a kind or type of person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun generally is not capitalized unless it begins a sentence or is part of a title.

Capital Letters

Proper Nouns

Common Nouns

Central High School

high school

Saturday

day

Rigoberta Menchú

woman

Cambodia

country

USS Nautilus

submarine

13 a–d

Reference Note

EXAMPLES

House of Representatives

Ivan the Terrible

(1) Capitalize the names of persons and animals. Be sure to capitalize initials in names. Persons

Animals

Monica Sone

Aaron Neville

Charlayne Hunter-Gault

Mohandas K. Gandhi

Shamu

Trigger

Socks

Rikki-tikki-tavi

(2) Capitalize geographical names. Type of Name

Examples

Continents

Europe

South America

Antarctica

Asia

Australia

Egypt

El Salvador

Saudi Arabia

Miami

Indianapolis

Los Angeles

Manila

Tennessee

Delaware

Rhode Island

Wyoming

Countries

Cities, Towns

States

Abbreviations of the names of states are capitalized. See page 291 for more about using and punctuating such abbreviations.

STYLE

TIP

Some names consist of more than one part. The different parts may begin with capital letters only or with a combination of capital and lowercase letters. If you are not sure about the spelling of a name, ask the person with that name or check a reference source. EXAMPLES Van den Akker, van Gogh, McEnroe, La Fontaine, de la Garza, Ibn Saud COM P U T E R T I P

(continued)

If you use a computer, you may be able to use a spellchecker to help you capitalize names correctly. Make a list of the names you write most often. Be sure that you have spelled and capitalized each name correctly. Then, add this list to your computer’s dictionary or spellchecker.

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267

MECHANICS

Some proper nouns consist of more than one word. In these names, short words such as prepositions (those of fewer than five letters) and articles (a, an, the) are generally not capitalized.

(continued)

STYLE

TIP

A two-letter state abbreviation without periods is used only when it is followed by a ZIP Code. Both letters of the abbreviation are capitalized. No mark of punctuation is used between the abbreviation and the ZIP Code.

Type of Name

Examples

Islands

Aleutian Islands

Long Island

Crete

Isle of Pines

Amazon River

Lake Ontario

Chesapeake Bay

Jackson’s Pond

Suez Canal

Indian Ocean

Main Street

Canary Lane

Eighth Avenue

Highway 71

Bodies of Water

Streets, Highways

EXAMPLES New Orleans, LA 701315140 New York, NY 10003-6981

In a hyphenated street number, the second part of the number is not capitalized. EXAMPLE

Reference Note

MECHANICS

NOTE

In addresses, abbreviations such as St., Blvd., Ave., Dr., and Ln. are capitalized. For more about abbreviations, see page 291.

West Thirty-fourth Street

Type of Name

Examples

Parks and Forests

Sherwood Forest Brechtel Park

Everglades National Park

Mountains

Catskills

Mount Everest

Mount Fuji

the Alps

the Middle East

the Southeast

New England the West

Corn Belt Southern Hemisphere

Mayon Volcano

Sinai Peninsula

Painted Desert

Meteor Crater

Regions

Other Geographical Names NOTE

Words such as east, west, northern, or southerly are not capitalized when the words merely indicate direction. However, they are capitalized when they name a particular region. EXAMPLES

A car was going south on Oak Street. [direction] The South has produced some of America’s great writers. [region of the country]

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For each common noun given below, write two proper nouns. You may need to use a dictionary and an atlas. Be sure to use capital letters correctly. Answers will vary. EXAMPLE

1. country 1. Canada, Japan

1. lake 2. continent 3. president 4. highway Exercise 2

5. teacher 6. athlete 7. park

8. ocean 9. city 10. region

Correcting Errors in Capitalization

Each of the following sentences contains at least one capitalization error. Correct these errors by writing the words that are incorrectly capitalized and either changing capital letters to lowercase letters or changing lowercase letters to capital letters. EXAMPLE

1. The original Settlers of hawaii came from the marquesas islands and tahiti. 1. settlers, Hawaii, Marquesas Islands, Tahiti Words that should be capitalized or lowercased are underscored.

Possible answers: 1. Lake Michigan, Town Lake 2. Asia, Africa 3. George Washington, John Tyler 4. Loop 410, Redwood Highway 5. Mr. Ferguson, Mrs. Longstreth 6. Mark McGwire, Randy Johnson 7. Zilker Park, Central Park 8. Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean 9. Duluth, Memphis 10. Midwest, East Coast

1. our Class is studying hawaii. 2. The Hawaiian islands are located in the pacific ocean, nearly twenty-four hundred miles West of san francisco, california. 3. Hawaii officially became the fiftieth State in the united states in 1959. 4. Our teacher, ms. Jackson, explained that the Capital City is honolulu; she said that it is located on the southeast Coast of oahu island. 5. The largest of the Islands is hawaii. 6. On the southeast shore of hawaii island is hawaii volcanoes national park. 7. Ms. Jackson asked, “can anyone name one of the Volcanoes there?” 8. Since i had been reading about National Parks, i raised my hand. 9. “The Park has two active volcanoes, mauna Loa and kilauea,” I answered.

Using Capital Letters Correctly

269

MECHANICS

Writing Proper Nouns

Exercise 1

MECHANICS

10. “These pictures show how lava from kilauea’s eruption threatened everything in its path in 1989,” I added. 11. Its crater, halemaumau crater, is the largest active crater in the World. 12. “we’ll go into much more detail about volcanoes tomorrow,” ms. jackson said. 13. then ms. jackson told us that honolulu is probably the most important business center in the pacific ocean. 14. Ever since captain William Brown sailed into the harbor in 1794, Hawaii has played an increasingly important role in business. 15. It’s easy to see why—Hawaii is midway between Continents. 16. hawaii’s largest city has a fine seaport; it links japan, china, and even australia with North and south America. 17. Cultural and academic studies thrive there in places such as the university of hawaii and the east-west center. 18. You can even get a look at the iolani palace where the Rulers of hawaii once lived. 19. Perhaps best of all, hawaii offers Tourists a day in the sun at waikiki beach. 20. Suddenly, i blurted out, “wouldn’t it be great if we could all go there now!”

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Capital Letters

(3) Capitalize names of organizations, teams, institutions, and government bodies. Examples

Organizations

Clark Drama Club

Teams

Institutions Government Bodies

The names of organizations, businesses, and government bodies are often abbreviated to a series of capital letters.

Junior League

Modern Language Association

Boston Celtics

Los Angeles Dodgers

Dallas Cowboys

Hutto Hippos

Westside Regional Hospital

Roosevelt Junior High School

United Nations

Congress

Peace Corps

York City Council

(4) Capitalize the names of historical events and periods, special events, calendar items, and holidays. Type of Name

Examples

Historical Events and Periods

Revolutionary War

Special Events

Calendar Items and Holidays

Bronze Age

United States Bicentennial

Holocaust

Age of Reason

Texas State Fair

Super Bowl

Special Olympics

Festival of States

Monday

February

Memorial Day

Thanksgiving Day

the Quebec Winter Carnival

(5) Capitalize the names of nationalities, races, and peoples. EXAMPLES

Mexican

Nigerian

African American

Iroquois

American Telephone & Telegraph

AT&T

National Science Foundation

NSF

STYLE

proper name. the winter holidays

NOW

Usually the letters in such abbreviations are not followed by periods, but always check an up-to-date dictionary or other reliable source to be sure.

N O T E Do not capitalize the name of a season unless it is part of a

EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES National Organization for Women

TIP

The words black and white may or may not be capitalized when they refer to races. Either way is correct. EXAMPLE In the 1960s, both Blacks and Whites [or blacks and whites] worked to end segregation. Within each piece of writing, be sure to be consistent in your use of capitals or lowercase letters for these words.

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MECHANICS

Type of Name

HELP

(6) Capitalize the names of businesses and the brand names of business products. Type of Name

Examples

Businesses

Sears, Roebuck and Co.

Fields Department Store

Thrifty Dry Cleaners

First National Bank

Schwinn Mesa

Apple Macintosh

GMC Jimmy

Callaway Big Bertha

Business Products

NOTE

Names of types of products are not capitalized.

EXAMPLES

Schwinn bicycle, Apple computer, Callaway golf club

MECHANICS

(7) Capitalize the names of ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft. Reference Note For information on using italics in names, see page 320.

Type of Name

Examples

Ships

Queen Elizabeth 2

Kon Tiki

Trains

City of New Orleans

Silver Meteor

Aircraft

Memphis Belle

Spruce Goose

Spacecraft

Voyager 2

Sputnik

(8) Capitalize the names of buildings and other structures. EXAMPLES

Sydney Opera House, St. Louis Cathedral, Aswan Dam, Eiffel Tower, Brooklyn Bridge

NOTE

Do not capitalize such words as hotel, theater, or high school unless they are part of the name of a particular building or institution. EXAMPLES

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Capital Letters

Capital Theater

a theater

Lane Hotel

the hotel

Taft High School

this high school

(9) Capitalize the names of monuments, memorials, and awards. Type of Name

Examples

Monuments

Great Sphinx

Stonehenge

Navajo National Monument

Washington Monument

Lincoln Memorial the Coronado Memorial

The Minute Man

Emmy Award

Nobel Prize

Congressional Medal of Honor

Pulitzer Prize

Memorials

Awards

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

MECHANICS

(10) Capitalize the names of religions and their followers, holy days and celebrations, sacred writings, and specific deities. Type of Name

Examples

Religions and Followers

Judaism

Christian

Hinduism

Muslim

Holy Days and Celebrations

Easter

Yom Kippur

All Saints’ Day

Christmas Eve

Sacred Writings

Koran

Dead Sea Scrolls

Bible

Upanishads

God

Jehovah

Allah

Krishna

Specific Deities

N O T E The words god and goddess are not capitalized when they

refer to a deity of ancient mythology. However, the names of specific gods and goddesses are capitalized. EXAMPLES

The king of the Norse gods was Odin. Athena was the Greek goddess of wisdom and warfare.

Using Capital Letters Correctly

273

STYLE

TIP

(11) Capitalize the names of planets, stars, constellations, and other heavenly bodies.

The word earth is not capitalized unless it is used along with the names of other heavenly bodies that are capitalized. The words sun and moon are generally not capitalized. EXAMPLES Oceans cover three fourths of the earth’s surface. Which is larger— Saturn or Earth? How many moons does Jupiter have?

Type of Name

Examples

Planets

Mercury

Venus

Stars

Rigel

Proxima Centauri

Constellations

Ursa Major

Andromeda

Other Heavenly Bodies

Milky Way

Comet Kohoutek

Exercise 3

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization

Supply capital letters wherever they are needed in each of the following sentences. Words that should be capitalized MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

are underscored. 1. Each arbor day the students at franklin junior high school plant a tree. 1. Arbor Day, Franklin Junior High School

1. The golden gate bridge spans the entrance of san francisco bay. 2. Our muslim neighbors, the Rashads, fast during the month of ramadan. 3. The peace corps became a government agency by an act of congress. 4. Do you think the henderson hornets will win the playoffs? 5. Thousands of cherokee people live in the Smoky Mountains in and around North Carolina. 6. To stop flooding in the South, the tennessee valley authority, a government agency, built thirty-nine dams on the Tennessee River and the streams that flow into it. 7. Which biographer won the pulitzer prize this year? 8. On new year’s day, many fans crowd into football stadiums for annual bowl games such as the rose bowl. 9. Can you see neptune or any of its moons through your telescope? 10. Have you read any myths about apollo, a god once worshiped by the greeks?

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Capital Letters

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization

STYLE

Read each of the following sentences aloud. Then, identify the words in each sentence that should be capitalized. EXAMPLE

Words that should be capitalized are underscored. 1. according to my sister, i’m a mall rat. 1. According to my sister, I’m a mall rat.

1. the branford mall is the largest in melville county. 2. It is on jefferson parkway, two miles north of duck lake state park and the big bridge that crosses duck lake. 3. Across the parkway from the mall is our new local high school with its parking lots, playing fields, and stadium, home of the branford panthers. 4. Near the mall are the american legion hall, bowlarama, and king skating rink. 5. The mall includes two jewelry stores, nicholson’s department store, the palace cinema, and thirty-five other businesses. 6. They range from small stationery stores to one of the finest restaurants in the midwest. 7. The restaurant larue is run by marie and jean larue, who are from france. 8. Also in the mall is the american paper box company, which sells boxes for every packaging need. 9. My friends sharon and earl always shop at gene’s jeans, which specializes in denim clothing. 10. An outlet store for northwestern leather goods of chicago sells uffizi purses and wallets. Review A

TIP

Misusing a capital letter or a lowercase letter at the beginning of a word can confuse the meaning of a sentence. EXAMPLE I’d like to see inside the white house. [The sentence means I’d like to see inside a particular house that is white.] I’d like to see inside the White House. [The sentence means I’d like to see inside the home of the president of the United States.] You may be able to use double meanings effectively in poetry or in other creative writing. In formal writing, though, you should follow the rules of standard capitalization.

Correcting Errors in Capitalization

Each of the following sentences contains errors in capitalization. Correct these errors by changing incorrect capital letters to lowercase letters and incorrect lowercase letters to capital letters.

Words that should be capitalized or lowercased are underscored. EXAMPLE 1. African americans in massachusetts have played an important part in American history. 1. Americans, Massachusetts

1. In Boston, the Crispus attucks monument is a memorial to attucks and the other men who died in the boston Massacre. 2. According to many Historians, attucks was a former slave who fought against the british in the american Revolution. Using Capital Letters Correctly

275

MECHANICS

Oral Practice

The Granger Collection, New York

Vermont

New Hampshire

ATLANTIC OCEAN New York

Cape Ann

Lynn Cambridge Massachusetts

Massachusetts Bay

BOSTON

Great Barrington

Jan Ernst Matzeliger

Cape Cod Bay

Connecticut

Rhode Island

Nantucket Sound

MECHANICS

Martha's Vineyard

Nantucket Island

3. The department of the Interior has made the Home of maria baldwin a historic building in cambridge. 4. Baldwin was a Leader in the league for Community Service, an Organization to help the Needy. 5. One of the founders of the National association for the Advancement of colored people, w.e.b. DuBois, was born in great Barrington, Massachusetts. 6. A marker stands on the Spot where DuBois lived. 7. Jan ernst matzeliger, who lived in lynn, invented a machine that made Shoes easier and cheaper to manufacture. 8. The nantucket whaling Museum has information about Peter green, a Sailor on the ship john Adams. 9. During a storm at sea, Green saved the Ship and crew. 10. Use the Map of Massachusetts shown above to locate the Towns and Cities in which these notable african Americans lived.

W.E.B. DuBois

Crispus Attucks

13e. Capitalize proper adjectives. Reference Note For more about proper adjectives, see page 37.

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Chapter 13

A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun and is capitalized.

Capital Letters

Proper Noun

Proper Adjective

Greece

Greek theater

Mars

Martian moons

Darwin

Darwinian theory

Japan

Japanese tea ceremony

13 e, f

MEETING THE CHALLENGE

13f. Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except course names followed by numerals and names of language classes. EXAMPLES

history, typing, algebra, English, Spanish, Latin, History 101, Music III, Art Appreciation I

Exercise 4

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization

Choose a country. Then, write a paragraph giving a short biographical sketch of a current or former leader of that country. In your paragraph, correctly use and capitalize at least five proper nouns and five proper adjectives.

Supply capital letters where they are needed in each of the following sentences. Words that should be capitalized are underscored. 1. Rosa said we were eating mexican bread. 1. Mexican

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

1. The program featured russian ballet dancers. 2. The european Common Market improves international trade. 3. The scandinavian countries include both Norway and Sweden. 4. In geography, we learned about the platypus and the koala, two australian animals. 5. We read several english plays in my literature class. 6. I am planning to take computers I next year. 7. On the floor was a large persian rug. 8. England, France, Scotland, Russia, and the United States played important roles in canadian history. 9. The backyard was decorated with chinese lanterns. 10. Are you taking french or art II? Review B

Correcting Errors in Capitalization

Each of the sentences on the following page contains errors in capitalization. Correct these errors by writing the words that are incorrectly capitalized and changing capital letters to lowercase letters or changing lowercase letters to capital letters. Using Capital Letters Correctly

277

EXAMPLE

1. ”what do you know about Modern architecture at the beginning of the Century, sean?” 1. What, modern, century, Sean Words that should be capitalized or lowercased are underscored.

MECHANICS

1. In Social Studies, i learned about the famous Architect Frank Lloyd Wright. 2. One of wright’s best-known works is his house, fallingwater, in bear run, Pennsylvania. 3. “Yes, wright still may be the best-known american architect,” Mrs. Lee said. 4. Louis sullivan (1856–1924) was among the first Builders in the united States to use a steel frame. 5. A german architect helped design the Seagram Building, an early Skyscraper in the east. 6. Both architects and the Public wanted new ideas after world war II, according to my architecture 101 teacher. 7. the use of reinforced Concrete made possible large, thin roofs such as the one at the Massachusetts institute of technology. 8. Next tuesday we will see a Film about inventive designs in the brazilian capital. 9. I imagine that brazilian Citizens are proud of the architect Oscar niemeyer. 10. Hear my report on the israeli architect Moshe Safdie during History today. 13g. Capitalize titles. (1) Capitalize the title of a person when the title comes before a name. STYLE

TIP

For special emphasis or clarity, writers sometimes capitalize a title used alone or following a person’s name. EXAMPLES At the ceremony, the Queen honored the Royal Navy.

Chapter 13

President Lincoln

Mrs. Oliver Wendell

Mayor Bradley

Commissioner Rodriguez

Generally, a title that is used alone or following a person’s name is not capitalized, especially if the title is preceded by a or the. EXAMPLES

The secretary of defense held a news conference. Lien Fong, our class secretary, read the minutes.

Mr. Biden, the Senator from Delaware, called for a committee vote.

278

EXAMPLES

However, a title used by itself in direct address is usually capitalized.

Capital Letters

EXAMPLES

13 g

Is it very serious, Doctor? How do you do, Sir [or sir]?

(2) Capitalize a word showing a family relationship when the word is used before or in place of a person’s name. EXAMPLES

We expect Uncle Fred and Aunt Helen soon. Both Mom and Dad work at the hospital.

However, do not capitalize a word showing a family relationship when a possessive comes before the word. EXAMPLE

We asked Pedro’s mother and his aunt Celia to be chaperons.

(3) Capitalize the first and last words and all important words in titles and subtitles.

Type of Name

Examples

Books

The Mask of Apollo Mules and Men

Long Claws: An Arctic Adventure

Chapters and Other Parts of Books

“The Circulatory System”

“The Civil War Begins”

“Language Handbook”

“Epilogue”

Magazines

Popular Mechanics

Seventeen

Ebony

Sports Illustrated

The Tennessean

The Wall Street Journal

Newspapers

the Boston Globe Poems

“Season at the Shore”

Reference Note For more information about articles, see page 35. For more about coordinating conjunctions, see page 62. For more about prepositions, see page 58.

Reference Note For guidelines on what titles are italicized, see page 320. For guidelines on what titles are enclosed in quotation marks, see page 327.

Evangeline “Birches” (continued)

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279

MECHANICS

Unimportant words in titles include • articles (a, an, the) • coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) • prepositions of fewer than five letters (such as by, for, on, with)

(continued)

Type of Name

Examples

Short Stories

“The Purloined Letter”

“Broken Chain”

The Three Sisters

A Doll’s House

A Midsummer Night’s Dream

I Never Sang for My Father

Fairy Tale: A True Story

It’s a Wonderful Life

Babe

The Wizard of Oz

Television Series

Nova Kratt’s Creatures

Star Trek: The Next Generation

Cartoons and Comic Strips

Jump Start

Scooby Doo

Cathy

Dilbert

Audiotapes and CDs

Butterfly

Dos Mundos

Falling into You

Spirit

Computer Games and Video Games

Sonic the Hedgehog

Logical Journey

Math Blaster

SimCity

Rockett’s New School

Space Kids

Mona Lisa

The Night Watch

David

Mankind’s Struggle

Musical Compositions

The Marriage of Figaro

“America the Beautiful”

Historical Documents

Magna Carta

The Declaration of Independence

Plays

MECHANICS

Movies and Videos

Works of Art

HELP The official title of a book is found on the title page. The official title of a newspaper or periodical is found on the masthead, which usually appears on the editorial page or the table of contents.

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Chapter 13

Treaty of Paris

“Zlateh the Goat”

NOTE

The article the at the beginning of a title is not capitalized unless it is the first word of the official title. EXAMPLES My father reads The Wall Street Journal.

Capital Letters

Does she work for the Texas Review?

Exercise 5

Correcting Sentences by Capitalizing Words

Most of the following sentences contain at least one word that should be capitalized but is not. Correctly write each incorrect word. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Ms. Chang is meeting with principal Hodges. 1. Principal

Review C

MECHANICS

1. Tom Hanks’ career really took off after he starred in the movie big. 2. In 1998, John Glenn, a former senator, became the oldest person to travel in space. 2. C [or Senator] 3. The assignment is to compare and contrast Amy Tan’s story “Two kinds” with Bernard Malamud’s “The first seven years.” 4. Rummaging through the pile of used books, Marcia found a copy of the Complete Poems of Stephen Crane. 5. Our English teacher, mrs. Fernandez, has a small sculpture of the globe theatre sitting on her desk. 6. Isn’t it a coincidence that your aunt Jenny and my uncle Herbert work for the same company? 6. C 7. Which do you prefer, Bob Dylan’s CD Nashville skyline or his son’s The wallflowers? 8. Some of my friends claim that The Empire strikes back is the best movie of the series. 9. Did you remember to clip that article we read yesterday in The Washington post? 10. Mom and dad always chuckle when they read Hagar the Horrible. Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization

Write the sentences on the following page, using capital letters wherever they are needed. Words that should be capitalized EXAMPLE

are underscored. 1. The series all creatures great and small is being rerun on public television. 1. The series All Creatures Great and Small is being rerun on public television.

Using Capital Letters Correctly

281

MECHANICS

1. While waiting to interview mayor ward, I read an article in newsweek. 2. Have you read leslie marmon silko’s poem “story from bear country”? 3. You have probably seen a picture of the thinker, one of rodin’s best-known sculptures. 4. On television last night, we saw the movie the return of the native. 5. Every four years voters elect a president and several united states senators. 6. Uncle nick read aloud from francisco jiménez’s short story “the circuit.” 7. The reporter asked, “Can you tell us, senator inouye, when you plan to announce the committee’s final decision?” 8. The main speaker was dr. andrew holt, a former president of the university of tennessee. 9. Besides uncle don, our visitors included aunt pat, aunt jean, both of my grandmothers, and my great-grandfather. 10. The soccer players listened to coach Daly as he outlined defensive strategy. Review D

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization

The following sentences each contain at least one capitalization error. Correctly write the words that require capital letters. EXAMPLE

1. The waters of the caribbean are pleasantly warm. 1. Caribbean

1. The greeks believed that zeus, the king of the gods, lived on mount olympus. 2. The titanic sank after hitting an iceberg off the coast of newfoundland. 3. My cousin collects scandinavian pottery. 4. Stephanie is taking english, math II, and biology. 5. On friday we were cheered by the thought that monday, memorial day, would be a holiday. 6. My picture is in today’s austin American-Statesman. 7. The quaker oats company has introduced a new corn cereal. 8. In roots, alex haley, a famous author, traces the history of his family. 9. She usually travels to boston on american airlines. 282

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Capital Letters

10. I wanted to name my persian cat after one of the justices on the supreme court. Review E

Proofreading a Paragraph for Correct Capitalization

Each sentence in the following paragraph contains at least one error in capitalization. Correctly write the words that require capital letters. EXAMPLE

[1] Before thanksgiving, i learned some interesting facts about africa in my history II class. 1. Thanksgiving, I, Africa, History II

Using Capital Letters Correctly

MECHANICS

[1] My teacher, mr. davidson, told us about the mighty kingdoms and empires that existed for hundreds of years in africa. [2] some of these kingdoms dated back to the time of the roman empire. [3] Others rose to power during the period known as the middle ages in europe. [4] For many years, the people in the kingdom of cush did ironwork and traded along the nile river. [5] Later, the cush were defeated by the people of axum, led by king ezana. [6] As you can see in the map below, several kingdoms in africa developed between lake chad and the atlantic ocean. [7] Three of these kingdoms were ghana, mali, and songhai. [8] These kingdoms established important trade routes across the sahara. [9] Tombouctou’s famous university attracted egyptian and other arab students. [10] I read more about these african kingdoms and empires in our textbook, world history: people and nations.

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Review F

Correcting Errors in Capitalization

Each of the following sentences contains at least one error in capitalization. Correctly write each incorrect word, changing capital letters to lowercase letters or changing lowercase letters to capital letters.

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

1. On june 25, 1876, sioux and cheyenne warriors defeated general george a. Custer and his Troops. 1. June, Sioux, Cheyenne, General George A., troops

1. The Defeat of general custer occurred at the battle of the little bighorn. 2. In december of 1890, many Sioux were killed by Soldiers in a battle at wounded Knee creek in south Dakota. 3. Depicted by artists, writers, and filmmakers, both Battles have become part of american History. 4. In the late nineteenth century, the sioux Artist Kicking bear painted the Battle Of the little Bighorn. 5. The painting, done on muslin Cloth, is shown below. 6. Kicking bear, who himself fought in the Battle, painted at the pine Ridge agency in south Dakota, where he lived. 7. soldiers who fought against kicking Bear described him as courageous. 8. The well-known American Poet Stephen vincent benét wrote about the battle of wounded knee in a Poem called “american names.” 9. More recently, the author Dee brown wrote about the american indians of the west in his book bury my Heart at Wounded knee. 10. In 1970, the movie Little big Man told the story of a fictional 121-year-old character who had survived the Battle against general Custer. Battle of Little Bighorn by Kicking Bear (Sioux), 1898. Courtesy of the Southwest Museum, Los Angeles

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Capital Letters

C CH HA AP PT TE ER R

Chapter Review A. Correcting Errors in Capitalization

1. [13d(6)] 2. [13g(3), d(1)] 3. [13g(2)] 4. [13d(6, 2)] 5. [13d(1, 8, 2)] 6. [13g(1), f] 7. [13d(4)] 8. [13d(9)] 9. [13g(2), d(2)] 10. [13g(2), d(1), g(1)] 11. [13d(2)] 12. [13g(2), d(11)] 13. [13a, f] 14. [13d(1)] 15. [13g(2), d(4)] 16. [13d(2)] 17. [13g(3)] 18. [13d(4), e]

are underscored.

1. Please pick up a box of Tide Detergent at the store. 2. The “Battle Hymn Of The Republic” was written by Julia

ward Howe. 3. Are we going to uncle Ted’s house for Thanksgiving again? 4. Charing cross book shop is on Thirty-Second Street. 5. Ms. wong always stays at the Four Seasons hotel when she’s in New York city on business. 6. Do you know if professor Ezekiel will be teaching Creative Writing during the spring semester? 7. In what year was the battle of gettysburg fought? 8. My aunt remembers when Mother Teresa won the Nobel Peace prize. 9. Every winter my Grandparents travel to the southwest. 10. My Uncle sid once met sir Winston Churchill. 11. Mr. Salter often remembers his old house on vine street in McAllen, Texas. 12. Father and mother traveled all over the Earth when they were buying furniture for their antique store. 13. The principal asked me, “how would you like to study Geography next semester?” 14. When Jim went back to New York for Christmas, he left his dog, piper, at the kennel. 15. Sometimes my Mother works at home on friday. 16. Grand Canyon National park was closed this weekend because of heavy snow. 17. Shall we renew our subscription to national geographic? 18. This june we plan to welcome a swedish exchange student to our home.

Chapter Review

MECHANICS

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

Each of the following sentences contains at least one error in capitalization. Correct the errors either by changing capital letters to lowercase letters or by changing lowercase letters to capital letters. Words that should be capitalized or lowercased

285

19. [13d(8)] 20. [13d(7, 2)] 21. [13c, d(6)] 22. [13g(2)] 23. [13d(8)] 24. [13b] 25. [13f, g(1)]

19. We’re going to Washington, D.C., to see the white house. 20. At the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan, you can

see a replica of the spirit of st. louis, the plane that Charles Lindbergh used to fly solo across the atlantic. 21. At the Crossbay Market, i bought a can of progresso soup. 22. My Aunt Janice visited Petrified Forest National Park. 23. The Rosenbach museum and library in Philadelphia is open Tuesday through Sunday. 24. dear Mr. Boylan: I enjoyed your book enormously. sincerely yours, Jimmy Connolly 25. In History class, we learned about queen Elizabeth I.

B. Proofreading Sentences for Correct Capitalization MECHANICS

Write the following sentences, and correct errors in capitalization either by changing capital letters to lowercase letters or by changing lowercase letters to capital letters. 26. [13e] 27. [13g(3, 2)] 28. [13d(6, 2)] 29. [13d(5, 2)] 30. [13g(3), d] 31. [13d(3)] 32. [13d(4)] 33. [13d(2)] 34. [13e] 35. [13d(2)] 36. [13d(10)] 37. [13f]

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Words that should be capitalized or lowercased are underscored.

26. Mars, Venus, and Jupiter were roman gods. 27. The wind in the willows is my Mother’s favorite book. 28. Davis Housewares emporium has moved to Fifth street. 29. The lozi people in Africa live near the Zambezi river. 30. “Stopping By Woods On a Snowy Evening” is by Robert

Frost, a Poet from New England. 31. Do you know when David Souter was appointed to the supreme court? 32. Next Monday is memorial day. 33. When we traveled through the south, we visited the Antietam National Battlefield. 34. Ms. Ling is teaching us about chinese culture. 35. Cayuga lake stretches North from Ithaca, New York. 36. The main religion in Indonesia is islam, but there are also many Indonesian buddhists. 37. My older sister is taking Spanish, Science, Mathematics II, and Art.

Capital Letters

38. Carlos and I had turkey sandwiches made with german mus-

tard on french bread. 39. We turned west onto route 95 and stayed on it for five miles. 40. George Copway, who was born in Canada, wrote about his people, the ojibwa.

38. [13e] 39. [13d(2)] 40. [13d(5)]

Writing Application Using Capital Letters in a Letter Proper Nouns Students in your class have become pen pals with students in another country. You have been given the name of someone to write. Write your pen pal a letter introducing yourself and telling about your school and your community. In your letter, be sure to use capitalization correctly.

MECHANICS

Prewriting Note the information you want to give in your letter. You may wish to include information such as your age; a description of yourself; your favorite books, movies, actors, or musicians; some clubs, organizations, or special activities you participate in; some special places, events, or attractions in your community or state. Writing As you write your draft, keep in mind that your pen pal may not recognize names of some people, places, and things in the United States. For example, he or she may not recognize the names of your favorite movies or musical groups. Be sure to use correct capitalization to show which names are proper nouns. Revising Read through your letter carefully. Have you left out any important information? Are any parts of your letter confusing? If so, you may want to add, cut, or revise some details. Is the tone of your letter friendly? Have you followed the correct form for a personal letter? Publishing Read your letter carefully to check for any errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Use the rules in this chapter to help you double-check your capitalization. With your teacher’s permission, post a map of the world on the classroom wall and display the letters around the map.

Chapter Review

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CHAPTER

Punctuation End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, and Colons

Diagnostic Preview Using End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, and Colons The following sentences lack necessary periods, question marks, exclamation points, commas, semicolons, and colons. Rewrite each sentence, inserting the correct punctuation.

HELP All of the punctuation marks that are already in the sentences in the Diagnostic Preview are correct.

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EXAMPLE

Punctuation

1. Snakes lizards crocodiles and turtles are reptiles 1. Snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles are reptiles.

1. Toads and frogs on the other hand are amphibians 2. Some turtles live on land others live in lakes streams or oceans 3. Turtles have no teeth but you should watch out for their strong hard beaks 4. The words turtle and tortoise are similar in meaning but tortoise usually refers to a land dweller 5. The African pancake tortoise which has a flat flexible shell uses an unusual means of defense 6. Faced with a threat it crawls into a narrow crack in a rock takes a deep breath and wedges itself in tightly 7. Because some species of tortoises are endangered they cannot be sold as pets

MECHANICS

8. Three species of tortoises that can be found in the United States are as follows the desert tortoise the gopher tortoise and the Texas tortoise 9. The gopher tortoise lives in the Southeast and the desert tortoise comes from the Southwest 10. Is the Indian star tortoise which is now an endangered species very rare 11. As this kind of tortoise grows older its shell grows larger the number of stars on the shell increases and their pattern becomes more complex 12. The Indian star tortoise requires warmth sunlight and a diet of green vegetables 13. Living in fresh water soft-shelled turtles have long flexible beaks and fleshy lips 14. Their shells are not really soft however but are covered by smooth skin 15. Sea turtles are the fastest turtles the green turtle can swim at speeds of almost twenty miles per hour. 16. Most turtles can pull their head, legs, and tail into their shell however sea turtles cannot do so. 17. Mr Kim my neighbor up the street has several turtles in his backyard pond. 18. Come to my house at 4 30 in the afternoon, and I’ll show you our turtle. 19. At 7:00 P M , we can watch that new PBS documentary about sea turtles. 20. Wanda may I introduce you to Pokey my pet turtle 21. Pokey who has been part of our family for years is a redeared turtle. 22. The book Turtles A Complete Pet Owner’s Manual has helped me learn how to take care of Pokey. 23. Pokey has been in my family for fifteen years and my parents say that he could easily live to be fifty if he is cared for properly 24. What a great pet Pokey is 25. Don’t you agree with me Wanda that a turtle makes a good pet

Diagnostic Preview

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End Marks An end mark is a mark of punctuation placed at the end of a sentence. Periods, question marks, and exclamation points are end marks. 14a. Use a period at the end of a statement.

HELP Periods (decimal points) are also used to separate dollars from cents and whole numbers from tenths, hundredths, and so forth. EXAMPLES $10.23 [ten dollars and twenty-three cents] 5.7 [five and seven tenths]

EXAMPLE

Tea is grown in Sri Lanka.

14b. Use a question mark at the end of a question. EXAMPLE

Did you see the exhibit about lightning?

14c. Use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamation. EXAMPLE

Wow! What a high bridge that was !

14d. Use either a period or an exclamation point at the end of a request or a command.

MECHANICS

When an imperative sentence makes a request, it is generally followed by a period. When an imperative sentence expresses a strong command, an exclamation point is generally used. EXAMPLES

Please call the dog. [a request] Call the dog! [a command]

Oral Practice

Adding End Marks to Sentences

Read each of the following sentences aloud, and indicate which end mark should be added. EXAMPLE

1. Did you know that a choreographer is a person who creates dance steps 1. Did you know that a choreographer is a person who creates dance steps?

1. Why is Katherine Dunham called the mother of African American dance 2. She studied anthropology in college and won a scholarship to visit the Caribbean 3. How inspiring the dances she saw in Haiti were 4. When Dunham returned to the United States, she toured the country with her own professional dance company 5. How I admire such a talented person 6. Ask me anything about Katherine Dunham 290

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14 a–e

7. How many honors has Dunham’s creativity won her 8. She was named to the Hall of Fame of the National Museum of Dance in Saratoga, New York 9. She was also given the National Medal of Arts for exploring Caribbean and African dance 10. The editors of Essence magazine praised Dunham for helping to break down racial barriers 14e. Many abbreviations are followed by a period. Types of Abbreviations

Examples

Personal Names

A. B. Guthrie W.E.B. DuBois STYLE

Titles Used with Names

Mr. Mrs.

Organizations and Companies

Co.

Ms.

Inc. Corp.

Jr.

Sr. Dr.

Assn.

TIP

When writing the initials of someone’s name, place a space between two initials (S. E. Hinton). Do not place spaces between three initials (M.F.K. Fisher).

N O T E Abbreviations for government agencies and other widely

used abbreviations are written without periods. Each letter of the abbreviation is capitalized. EXAMPLES

FBI

NAACP

NIH

NPR

PTA

YWCA

Types of Abbreviations

Examples

Addresses

Ave. St. Rd. Blvd. P.O. Box

States

Tex. Penn. Ariz. Wash. N.C.

Times

A.M. (ante

meridiem, used with times from midnight to noon)

STYLE

TIP

An acronym is a word formed from the first (or first few) letters of a series of words. Acronyms are written without periods. EXAMPLES UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America)

(post meridiem, used with times from noon to midnight)

P.M. B.C.

(before Christ)

(anno Domini, in the year of the Lord)

A.D.

End Marks

291

MECHANICS

Livie I. Durán

STYLE

TIP

NOTE

A two-letter state abbreviation without periods is used only when it is followed by a ZIP Code. Both letters of such abbreviations are capitalized.

The abbreviations A.D. and need special attention. You should place A.D. before the numeral and B.C. after the numeral. B.C.

EXAMPLE

EXAMPLES A.D. 760 54 B.c.

Abbreviations for units of measure are usually written without periods and are not capitalized.

However, for centuries expressed in words, place both A.D. and B.C. after the century.

EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES seventh century B.C.

However, to avoid confusion with the word in, you should use a period with the abbreviation for inch (in.). NOTE

When an abbreviation with a period ends a sentence, another period is not needed. However, a question mark or an exclamation point is used as needed.

fourth century A.D.

EXAMPLES

We will arrive by 3:00 P.M. Can you meet us at 3:30 P.M.?

HELP

MECHANICS

Orlando, FL 32819

If you are not sure whether you should use a period with an abbreviation, look up the abbreviation in a dictionary.

Oh no! It’s already 3:30 P.M.!

Exercise 1

Punctuating Abbreviations

Some of the following sentences contain abbreviations that have not been correctly punctuated. Correct each error. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Of course, we watch P.B.S.; we love the science shows it broadcasts. 1. PBS

1. Not everyone knows that WEB DuBois eventually became a Ghanaian citizen. 2. The writing isn’t clear, but I think it says 10 ft 6 in or 10 ft 5 in. 3. Write me in care of Mrs. Audrey Coppola, 10 Watson Ave.. 4. Yes, that’s in California—Novato, C.A. 94949. 5. Were those clay statues made as far back as 500 B.C? 6. Send your check or money order to Lester’s Low-Cost Computer Chips, Inc, Duluth, Minn, and receive your new chips in two days! 7. Could you be there at 7:00 P.M.?

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8. I would never do business with a company whose only address was a PO box. 9. Miss Finch, Dr Bledsoe will see you now. 10. His full name is Marvin French Little Hawk, Jr., but everyone calls him Junior. Review A

Adding Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points to Sentences

Rewrite each of the following sentences, adding the necessary periods, question marks, and exclamation points. controls

1. Do you ever think about how electricity is produced 1. Do you ever think about how electricity is produced?

1. Electricity can come from large hydroelectric power stations 2. Wow, these stations certainly do create a lot of power 3. How do hydroelectric power stations work 4. Look at the diagram to gain a better understanding 5. Falling water from natural falls or artificial dams provides the initial power in the process 6. Have you ever been to Niagara Falls, New York, to see the famous falls 7. From 12:00 AM. to 12:00 AM.— constantly, in other words—the falls are a tremendous power source 8. As you can see, rushing water turns turbines, which then drive generators 9. What exactly are generators, and what do they do 10. J D explained that generators are the machines that turn the motion of the turbines into electricity

water

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

turbine

generator

electricity

End Marks

293

Commas End marks are used to separate complete thoughts. Commas, however, are generally used to separate words or groups of words within a complete thought. 14f. Use commas to separate items in a series.

A series is a group of three or more items in a row. Words, phrases, and clauses may appear in a series. Words in a Series January, February, and March are all summer months in the Southern Hemisphere. [nouns] The engine rattled, coughed, and stalled. [verbs] The baby was happy, alert, playful, and active. [adjectives] Phrases in a Series

MECHANICS

There were fingerprints at the top, on the sides, and on the bottom. [prepositional phrases] Cut into pieces, aged for a year, and well dried, the wood was ready to burn. [participial phrases] To pitch in a World Series game, to practice medicine, and to run for mayor are all things I would like to do someday. [infinitive phrases] Clauses in a Series We sang, we danced, we ate dinner, and we played trivia games. [short independent clauses] I knew that we were late, that the ice cream was melting, and that the car was nearly out of gas. [short subordinate clauses]

NOTE

Reference Note For information about using semicolons, see page 310.

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Only short independent clauses in a series may be separated by commas. A series of independent clauses that are long or that contain commas should be separated by semicolons. EXAMPLE

Yawning, Mother closed the curtains; Father, who had just come in, turned on the porch light; and my little sister, Christina, put on her pajamas.

14 f

Always be sure that there are at least three items in the series; two items generally do not need a comma between them. You will need a pencil, and plenty of paper.

CORRECT

You will need a pencil and plenty of paper.

When all the items in the series are joined by and or or, do not use commas to separate them. EXAMPLES

Take water and food and matches with you. Stephen will take a class in karate or judo or aikido next year.

Exercise 2

Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Commas

Some of the following sentences need commas; others do not. If a sentence needs any commas, write the word before each missing comma and add the comma. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLES

1. Seal the envelope stamp it and mail the letter. 1. envelope, it, 2. You should swing the club with your knees bent and your back straight and your elbows tucked. 2. C

STYLE

TIP

In your reading, you will find that some writers omit the comma before the conjunction joining the last two items of a series. Nevertheless, you should form the habit of including this comma. Sometimes a comma is necessary to make your meaning clear. Notice how the comma affects the meaning in the following examples. EXAMPLES Mom, Jody and I want to go to the movies. [Mom is being asked for her permission.] Mom, Jody, and I want to go to the movies. [Three people want to go to the movies.]

1. The mountains and valleys of southern Appalachia were once home to the Cherokee people. 2. Cleveland Cincinnati Toledo and Dayton are four large cities in Ohio. 3. The captain entered the cockpit checked the instruments and prepared for takeoff. 4. Luisa bought mangos and papayas and oranges. 5. The speaker took a deep breath and read the report. 6. Rover can roll over walk on his hind feet and catch a tennis ball. 7. The neighbors searched behind the garages in the bushes and along the highway. 8. Rubén Blades is an attorney an actor and a singer. 9. Eleanor Roosevelt’s courage her humanity and her service to the nation will always be remembered. 10. Tate dusted I vacuumed and Blair washed the dishes. Commas

295

MECHANICS

INCORRECT

14g. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that come before a noun. EXAMPLES

A white dwarf is a tiny, dense star. Venus Williams played a powerful, brilliant game.

Do not place a comma between an adjective and the noun immediately following it.

TIPS

TRICKS

To see whether a comma is needed between two adjectives, insert and between the adjectives. If and sounds awkward there, do not use a comma.

INCORRECT

My spaniel is a fat, sassy, puppy.

CORRECT

My spaniel is a fat, sassy puppy.

Sometimes the final adjective in a series is thought of as part of the noun. When the adjective and the noun are linked in such a way, do not use a comma before the final adjective. EXAMPLES

An unshaded electric light hung from the ceiling. [not unshaded, electric light]

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE unshaded electric light TEST unshaded and electric light

A huge horned owl lives in those woods. [not huge, horned owl]

NOTE

When an adjective and a noun are closely linked, they may be thought of as a unit. Such a unit is called a compound noun. EXAMPLES

Persian cat

Black Sea

French bread

ANSWER No comma is needed. Another test you can use is to switch the order of the adjectives. If the sentence still makes sense when you switch them, use a comma. EXAMPLE tiny, dense star

Review B

Most of the following sentences need commas. If a sentence needs any commas, write the word before each missing comma and add the comma. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

TEST dense, tiny star ANSWER Use a comma.

Reference Note For more information about compound nouns, see page 25.

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Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Commas

Punctuation

1. Chen participated in debate volleyball and drama. 1. debate, volleyball,

1. Carla sneaked in and left a huge gorgeous fragrant bouquet of flowers on the desk. 2. I chose the gift Michael wrapped it and Charley gave it to Gina and Kelly. 3. Smoking is a costly dangerous habit. 4. In the human ear, the hammer anvil and stirrup carry sound waves to the brain. 5. Buffalo Bill was a Pony Express rider a scout and a touring stunt performer.

14 g, h

6. “The Masque of the Red Death” is a famous horror story by Edgar Allan Poe. 7. According to Greek mythology, the three Fates spin the thread of life measure it and cut it. 8. LeVar Burton played the intelligent likable character Geordi on Star Trek: The Next Generation. 9. The fluffy kitten with the brown white and black spots is my favorite. 10. Falstaff begged for mercy in a fight ran away and later bragged about his bravery in battle.

Compound Sentences

EXAMPLES

Tamisha offered me a ticket, and I accepted. They had been working very hard, but they didn’t seem especially tired. The Mullaney twins were excited, for they were going to day care for the first time.

When the independent clauses are very short and there is no chance of misunderstanding, the comma before and, but, or or is sometimes omitted. EXAMPLES

STYLE

TIP

The word so is often overused. If possible, try to reword a sentence to avoid using so. EXAMPLE It was late, so we went home. REVISED Because it was late, we went home.

It rained and it rained. Come with us or meet us there.

N O T E Always use a comma before for, nor, so, or yet when joining

independent clauses. EXAMPLE

I was tired, yet I stayed.

Do not be misled by a simple sentence that contains a compound verb. A simple sentence has only one independent clause. SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH COMPOUND VERB

Usually we study in the morning and play basketball in the afternoon.

COMPOUND SENTENCE

Usually we study in the morning, and we play basketball in the afternoon. [two independent clauses]

Reference Note For more information about compound sentences, see page 131. For more about simple sentences with compound verbs, see page 15.

Commas

297

MECHANICS

14h. Use a comma before and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet when it joins independent clauses in a compound sentence.

Exercise 3

Correcting Compound Sentences by Adding Commas

If a sentence needs a comma, write the word before the missing comma and add the comma. If an existing comma is unnecessary, write the words before and after the comma and omit the comma. If the sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. American Indian artists have a heritage dating back thousands of years and many of them draw on this heritage, to create modern works. 1. years, heritage to

MECHANICS

1. Today’s artists sometimes work with nontraditional materials but they often use traditional techniques. 2. In the photograph below, you can see the work of the Tohono O’odham artist Mary Thomas, and begin to appreciate this basket weaver’s skill. 3. The baskets in the photograph are woven in the “friendship design” and show a circle of human figures in a traditional prayer ceremony. 4. Yucca and devil’s claw are used to make these baskets and each plant’s leaves are a different color. 5. The Navajo artist Danny Randeau Tsosie listened to his grandmother’s stories, and learned about his family’s heritage. 6. Tsosie’s works show her influence but also express his own point of view. 7. Christine Nofchissey McHorse learned the skill of pottery making from her grandmother and now McHorse can make beautiful bowls. 8. McHorse has an unusual style for her designs combine traditional Navajo and Pueblo images.

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14 i

9. American Indian jewelry makers often use pieces of turquoise and coral found in North America and they also use other stones from around the world. 10. American Indian art often looks very modern yet some of its symbols and patterns are quite old.

Interrupters 14i. Use commas to set off an expression that interrupts a sentence.

Two commas are needed if the expression to be set off comes in the middle of the sentence. One comma is needed if the expression comes first or last. EXAMPLES

Ann Myers, our neighbor, is a fine golfer. Naturally, we expect to win. My answer is correct, I think.

MECHANICS

(1) Use commas to set off nonessential participial phrases and nonessential subordinate clauses.

A nonessential (or nonrestrictive) phrase or clause adds information that is not needed to understand the basic meaning of the sentence. Such a phrase or clause can be omitted without changing the main idea of the sentence. NONESSENTIAL PHRASES

My sister, listening to her radio, did not hear me. Paul, thrilled by the applause, took a bow.

NONESSENTIAL CLAUSES

The Wizard of Oz, which I saw again last week, is my favorite movie. I reported on Secret of the Andes, which was written by Ann Nolan Clark.

Each boldface clause or phrase above can be omitted because it is not essential to identify the word or phrase it modifies. Omitting such a clause or phrase will not change the meaning of the sentence. EXAMPLES

Paul took a bow. I reported on Secret of the Andes.

PEANUTS of United reprinted by p erm Feature Syndicat ission e, Inc.

Commas

299

Reference Note For more about phrases, see Chapter 5. For more about subordinate clauses, see page 114.

Do not set off an essential (or restrictive) phrase or clause. Since such a phrase or clause tells which one(s), it cannot be omitted without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. ESSENTIAL PHRASES

The people waiting to see Michael Jordan whistled and cheered. [Which people?] A bowl made by Maria Martínez is a collector’s item. [Which bowl?]

ESSENTIAL CLAUSES

The dress that I liked has been sold. [Which dress?] The man who tells Navajo folk tales is Mr. Platero. [Which man?]

Notice how the meaning changes when an essential phrase or clause is omitted. EXAMPLES

The people whistled and cheered. A bowl is a collector’s item.

MECHANICS

The dress has been sold. The man is Mr. Platero. NOTE

A clause beginning with that is usually essential.

EXAMPLE

Exercise 4

This is the birdhouse that I made.

Adding Commas to Sentences with Nonessential Phrases and Clauses

Some of the following sentences need commas to set off nonessential phrases and clauses. Other sentences are correct without commas. If a sentence needs commas, write the word that comes before each missing comma and add the comma. If the sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. My grandfather’s favorite photograph which was taken near Ellis Island shows his family after their arrival from Eastern Europe. 1. photograph, Island,

1. Millions of immigrants who came to the United States between about 1892 and 1954 stopped at Ellis Island which is in Upper New York Bay. 300

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MECHANICS

The Granger Collection, New York.

2. Families arriving from Europe were interviewed there. 3. The island and its buildings which were closed to the public for many years are now part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. 4. In 1990, Ellis Island rebuilt as a museum was officially opened to the public. 5. Visitors who wish to see the museum can take a ferry ride from Manhattan Island. 6. The museum’s lobby crowded with steamer trunks and other old baggage is the visitors’ first sight. 7. One special attraction in the museum consists of audiotapes and videotapes that describe the immigrants’ experiences. 8. The Registry Room which is on the second floor sometimes held as many as five thousand people. 9. The immigrants who came from many countries hoped to find freedom and a happier life in America. 10. Immigrants who came to the United States brought with them a strong work ethic and a variety of skills that helped to make our country great. (2) Use commas to set off nonessential appositives and nonessential appositive phrases.

An appositive is a noun or a pronoun used to identify or describe another noun or pronoun. NONESSENTIAL APPOSITIVE

My oldest sister, Alicia, will be at basketball practice until 6:00 P.M.

NONESSENTIAL APPOSITIVE PHRASES

Jamaica, a popular island for tourists, is in the Caribbean Sea. May I introduce you to Vernon, my cousin from Jamaica?

Commas

301

Do not use commas to set off an appositive that is essential to the meaning of a sentence. MEETING THE CHALLENGE

ESSENTIAL APPOSITIVES

You can use appositives and appositive phrases to combine sentences.

The planet Mercury is closer to the Sun than any other planet in our solar system. [The solar system contains more than one planet. The name is needed to identify which planet.]

ORIGINAL Our old house is on Larchmont Street. That house is my favorite place.

Exercise 5

COMBINED Our old house, my favorite place, is on Larchmont Street. Use appositive phrases to combine the following sentences.

MECHANICS

1. Ms. Blewett asked me to help out after practice. She’s our coach. 2. I play halfback. The halfback is the position between the forward and the fullback.

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My sister Alicia is at basketball practice. [The speaker has more than one sister and must give a name to identify which sister.]

Proofreading for the Correct Use of Commas with Appositives and Appositive Phrases

Rewrite each of the following sentences, and underline the appositive or appositive phrase. Use commas to set off nonessential appositive phrases. EXAMPLE

1. Mars one of the planets closest to Earth can be seen without a telescope. 1. Mars, one of the planets closest to Earth, can be seen without a telescope.

1. The whole class has read the novel Old Yeller. 2. Shana Alexander a former.editor of.a popular magazine was the main speaker at the conference. 3. The character Sabrina is Josie’s favorite. 4. The Galápagos Islands a group of.volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean were named for the Spanish word that means “tortoise.” 5. Rubber an elastic substance quickly restores itself to its original size and shape. 6. This bowl is made of clay found on Kilimanjaro the highest mountain in Africa. 7. The North Sea an arm of.the Atlantic Ocean is rich in fish, natural gas, and oil. 8. Jamake Highwater a Blackfoot/Eastern Band Cherokee author writes about the history of his people. 9. At Gettysburg a town in Pennsylvania an important battle of the Civil War was fought. 10. My friend Imelda is teaching me how to make empanadas.

Punctuation

(3) Use commas to set off words that are used in direct address. EXAMPLES

Ben, please answer the doorbell. Mom needs you, Francine. Would you show me, ma’am, where the craft store is?

Exercise 6

Correcting Sentences by Using Commas with Words of Direct Address

Identify the words used in direct address in the following sentences. Then, rewrite each sentence, inserting commas before, after, or both before and after the words, as needed. EXAMPLE

1. Listen folks to this amazing announcement! 1. folks—Listen, folks, to this amazing announcement!

MECHANICS

1. Andrea when are you leaving for Detroit? 2. Pay attention now class. 3. Let us my sisters and brothers give thanks. 4. Please Dad may I use your computer? 5. Senator please summarize your tax proposal. 6. Help me move this table Marlene. 7. “Tell me both of you what movie you want to see,” Jo said. 8. Hurry William and give me the phone number! 9. Mrs. Larson where is Zion National Park? 10. I’m just not sure friends that I agree with you. (4) Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions.

A parenthetical expression is a side remark that adds information or shows a relationship between ideas. EXAMPLES

Carl, on the contrary, prefers soccer to baseball. To tell the truth, Jan is one of my best friends.

Common Parenthetical Expressions by the way

in fact

of course

for example

in my opinion

on the contrary

however

I suppose

on the other hand

I believe

nevertheless

to tell the truth

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Some of these expressions are not always used parenthetically. EXAMPLES

Of course it is true. [not parenthetical] That is, of course, an Indian teakwood screen. [parenthetical] I suppose we ought to go home now. [not parenthetical] He’ll want a ride, I suppose. [parenthetical]

Exercise 7

Correcting Sentences by Using Commas to Set Off Parenthetical Expressions

The following sentences contain parenthetical expressions that require commas. Write the parenthetical expressions, inserting commas before, after, or both before and after the expressions, as needed.

MECHANICS

EXAMPLES

1. Everyone I suppose has heard of the Hubble Space Telescope. 1. , I suppose, 2. As a matter of fact even a small refracting telescope gives a good view of Saturn’s rings. 2. As a matter of fact,

1. You don’t need a telescope however to see all the beautiful sights in the night sky. 2. For instance on a summer night you might be able to view Scorpio, Serpens, and the Serpent Bearer. 3. By the way you should not overlook the Milky Way. 4. The Milky Way in fact is more impressive in the summer than at any other time of year. 5. Hercules of.course is an interesting constellation. 6. Studying the constellations is in my opinion a most interesting hobby. 7. It takes an active imagination however to spot some constellations. 8. Sagittarius for example is hard to see unless you’re familiar with a constellation map. 9. Scorpio on the other hand is quite clearly outlined. 10. Astronomy is a fascinating science I think.

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14 j

Introductory Words, Phrases, and Clauses 14j. Use a comma after certain introductory elements. (1) Use a comma after yes, no, or any mild exclamation such as well or why at the beginning of a sentence. EXAMPLES

Yes, you may borrow my bicycle. Why, it’s Lena! Well, I think you are wrong.

(2) Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase. EXAMPLES

Beginning a new school year, Zelda felt somewhat nervous.

Reference Note For information about participial phrases, see page 100.

Greeted with applause from the fans, Rashid ran out onto the field.

EXAMPLES

At the bottom of the hill , you will see the field.

Reference Note For information about prepositional phrases, see page 90.

MECHANICS

(3) Use a comma after two or more introductory prepositional phrases. Until the end of the song , just keep strumming that chord.

Also, use a comma after a single introductory prepositional phrase if the phrase is long. If it is short, a comma may or may not be used. Be sure to use a comma when it is necessary to make the meaning of the sentence clear. EXAMPLES

In the morning they left. [clear without a comma] In the morning, sunlight streamed through the window. [The comma is needed so that the reader does not read “morning sunlight.”]

(4) Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause. EXAMPLES

After I finish my homework, I will go to the park. When you go to the store, could you please pick up a gallon of milk?

Reference Note For information about adverb clauses, see page 120.

N O T E An adverb clause that comes at the end of a sentence does

not usually need a comma. EXAMPLE

I will go to the park after I finish my homework.

Commas

305

Exercise 8

Using Commas with Introductory Elements

If a comma is needed in a sentence, write the word before the missing comma and add the comma. EXAMPLE

1. Walking among the tigers and lions the trainer seemed unafraid. 1. lions,

MECHANICS

1. Because pemmican remained good to eat for several years it was a practical food for many American Indians. 2. Although Jesse did not win the student council election he raised many important issues. 3. On the desk in the den you will find your book. 4. Yes I enjoyed the fajitas that Ruben made. 5. Walking home from school Rosa saw her brother. 6. When I go to bed late I sometimes have trouble waking up in the morning. 7. Well we can watch television or play checkers. 8. Attracted by the computer games in the store window George decided to go in and buy one. 9. At the stoplight on the corner of the next block they made a right turn. 10. After eating the chickens settled down.

Conventional Situations 14k. Use commas in certain conventional situations. (1) Use commas to separate items in dates and addresses.

HELP Commas are also used in numbers over 999. Use a comma before every third digit to the left of the decimal point. EXAMPLE 3 ,147, 425.00

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EXAMPLES

She was born on January 26, 1988, in Cheshire, Connecticut. A letter dated November 26, 1888, was found in the old house at 980 West Street, Davenport, Iowa, yesterday.

Notice that a comma separates the last item in a date or in an address from the words that follow it. However, a comma does not separate a month from a day (January 26 ) or a house number from a street name (980 West Street).

Punctuation

14 k

N O T E Use the ZIP Code correctly on every piece of mail you address.

The ZIP Code follows the two-letter state abbreviation; no punctuation separates the state abbreviation from the ZIP Code. EXAMPLE

Fargo, ND 58102-2728

(2) Use a comma after the salutation of a personal letter and after the closing of any letter. EXAMPLES

Dear Dad,

Dear Sharon,

With love,

Yours truly,

Exercise 9

Reference Note For information about using colons for salutations in business letters, see page 312.

Using Commas Correctly

Rewrite the following sentences, inserting commas wherever they are needed. 1. I received a package from my friend who lives in Irving Texas. 1. I received a package from my friend who lives in Irving, Texas.

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

1. On May 25 1935 the runner Jesse Owens tied or broke six world track records. 2. The American Saddle Horse Museum is located at 4093 Iron Works Pike Lexington KY 40511-8462. 3. Marian Anderson was born on February 27 1902 in Philadelphia Pennsylvania. 4. Our new address will be 1808 Jackson Drive Ames IA 50010-4437. 5. Ocean City New Jersey is a popular seaside resort. 6. October 15 1988 is an important date because I was born then. 7. Have you ever been to Paisley Scotland? 8. We adopted our dog, King Barnabus IV, in Lee’s Summit Missouri on May 9 1995. 9. The national headquarters of the Environmental Defense Fund is located at 257 Park Avenue South New York NY 10010-7304. 10. Dear Lynn I am fine. How are you and your family?

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Review C HELP Too much punctuation is just as confusing as not enough punctuation, especially where the use of commas is concerned. CONFUSING My uncle, Doug, said he would take me fishing, this weekend, but now, he tells me, he will be out of town.

MECHANICS

CLEAR My uncle Doug said he would take me fishing this weekend, but now he tells me he will be out of town. Have a reason for every comma or other mark of punctuation that you use. When there is no rule requiring punctuation and the meaning of the sentence is clear without it, do not use any punctuation mark.

Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Commas

For the following sentences, write each word that should be followed by a comma and add the comma after the word. EXAMPLE

1. The substitute’s name is Mr. Fowler I think. 1. Fowler,

1. What time is your appointment Kevin? 2. My aunt said to forward her mail to 302 Lancelot Drive Simpsonville SC 29681-5749. 3. George Washington Carver a famous scientist had to work hard to afford to go to school. 4. Quick violent flashes of lightning cause an average of 14,300 forest fires a year in the United States. 5. My oldest sister Kim sent a postcard from Ewa Hawaii. 6. A single branch stuck out of the water and the beaver grasped it in its paws. 7. The beaver by the way is a rodent. 8. This hard-working mammal builds dams lodges and canals. 9. Built with their entrances underwater the lodges of American beavers are marvels of engineering. 10. The beaver uses its large tail which is flat to steer.

Review D

Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Commas

Each of the following sentences contains at least one error in the use of commas. Write each word that should be followed by a comma, and add the comma. EXAMPLES

1. Kyoto’s palaces shrines and temples remind visitors of this city’s importance in Japanese history. 1. palaces, shrines, 2. In Japanese Kyoto means “capital city” which is what Emperor Kammu made Kyoto in A.D. 794. 2. Japanese, city,

1. Kyoto a beautiful city was Japan’s capital for more than one thousand years.

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MECHANICS

2. It still may be called the cultural capital of Japan for it contains many Shinto shrines Buddhist temples the Kyoto National Museum, and wonderful gardens. 3. Yes Kyoto which was called Heian-kyo during the ninth century was so important that an entire period of Japanese history, the Heian period, is named for it. 4. Originating from the monasteries outside ancient Kyoto the magnificent mandala paintings feature universal themes. 5. Oh haven’t you seen the wonderful ukiyo-e paintings of vast mountains and tiny people? 6. Believe it or not readers there are now more than twenty colleges and universities in this treasured city. 7. Its people historic landmarks and art are respected across the globe. 8. With attractions like these it’s no surprise that Kyoto is a popular tourist stop. 9. Used in industries around the world the tools of fine crafts are made in Kyoto. 10. Kyoto manufactures silk for the fashion industry copper for artists and electricians and machines for businesses. 11. Fine delicate porcelain from Kyoto graces many tables around the world. 12. The Procession of the Eras celebrated every autumn takes place in Kyoto. 13. The Procession of the Eras festival which celebrates Kyoto’s history begins on October 22. 14. The beautiful solemn procession is a remarkable sight. 15. At the beginning of the festival priests offer special prayers. 16. Portable shrines are carried through the streets and thousands of costumed marchers follow. 17. Elaborate headgear and armor for example are worn by marchers dressed as ancient warriors. 18. Because the marchers near the front represent recent history they wear costumes from the nineteenth-century Royal Army Era. 19. Marching at the end of the procession archers wear costumes from the eighth-century Warrior Era. 20. The procession is in fact a rich memorial to Kyoto’s long and varied history.

Commas

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Semicolons STYLE

TIP

Semicolons are most effective when they are not overused. Sometimes it is better to separate a compound sentence or a heavily punctuated sentence into two sentences rather than to use a semicolon.

MECHANICS

ACCEPTABLE Garden visitors include butterflies, bats, and ladybugs ; such creatures benefit gardens in various ways, some by adding color, some by controlling pests, and all by pollinating plants. BETTER Garden visitors include butterflies, bats, and ladybugs. Such creatures benefit gardens in various ways, some by adding color, some by controlling pests, and all by pollinating plants.

A semicolon looks like a combination of a period and a comma, and that is just what it is. A semicolon can separate complete thoughts much as a period does. A semicolon can also separate items within a sentence much as a comma does. 14l. Use a semicolon between independent clauses if they are not joined by and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet. EXAMPLES

Jimmy took my suitcase upstairs; he left his own travel bag in the car. After school, I went to band practice; then I studied in the library for an hour.

Use a semicolon to link clauses only if the clauses are closely related in meaning. INCORRECT CORRECT

Uncle Ray likes sweet potatoes; Aunt Janie prefers the beach. Uncle Ray likes sweet potatoes; Aunt Janie prefers peas and carrots. or Uncle Ray likes the mountains; Aunt Janie prefers the beach.

14m. Use a semicolon rather than a comma before a coordinating conjunction to join independent clauses that contain commas. CONFUSING CLEAR

I wrote to Ann, Ramona, and Mai, and Jean notified Charles, Latoya, and Sue. I wrote to Ann, Ramona, and Mai; and Jean notified Charles, Latoya, and Sue.

NOTE

Semicolons are also used between items in a series when the items contain commas. EXAMPLES

They visited Phoenix, Arizona; Santa Fe, New Mexico; and San Antonio, Texas. Mr. Schultz, my science teacher; Ms. O’Hara, my English teacher; Mrs. Gomez, my math teacher; and Mr. Kim, my social studies teacher, attended the seventh-grade picnic.

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14 l–n

Exercise 10 Using Semicolons Correctly

Most of the following sentences have a comma where there should be a semicolon. If the sentence needs a semicolon, write the words before and after the missing semicolon and insert the punctuation mark. If the sentence does not need a semicolon, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Human beings have walked on the moon, they have not yet walked on any planet but earth. 1. moon; they

MECHANICS

1. Miyoko finished her homework, then she decided to go to Sally’s house. 2. Each January some people try to predict the major events of the upcoming year, but their predictions are seldom accurate. 3. Tie these newspapers together with string, put the aluminum cans in a bag. 4. I called Tom, Paul, and Francine, and Fred called Amy, Luis, Carlos, and Brad. 5. Reading is my favorite pastime, I love to begin a new book. 6. In 1991, Wellington Webb was elected mayor of Denver, he was the first African American to hold that office. 7. The two companies merged, and they became the largest consumer goods firm in the nation. 8. Your grades have definitely improved, you will easily pass the course. 9. Paris, France, Cairo, Egypt, and Copenhagen, Denmark, are all places that I would like to visit someday. 10. We haven’t seen the movie, for it hasn’t come to our town yet.

Colons 14n. Use a colon before a list of items, especially after expressions such as the following or as follows. EXAMPLES

You will need these items for map work: a ruler, colored pencils, and tracing paper. Jack’s pocket contained the following items: a key, a note from a friend, a button, and two quarters. The primary colors are as follows: red, blue, and yellow.

Colons

311

Reference Note For information about objects of verbs, see page 73. For information about objects of prepositions, see pages 59 and 90.

Do not use a colon between a verb and its object or between a preposition and its object. Omit the colon, or reword the sentence. INCORRECT CORRECT CORRECT

INCORRECT CORRECT CORRECT

Your heading should contain: your name, the date, and the title of your essay. Your heading should contain your name, the date, and the title of your essay. Your heading should contain the following information: your name, the date, and the title of your essay. This marinara sauce is made of: tomatoes, onions, oregano, and garlic. This marinara sauce is made of tomatoes, onions, oregano, and garlic. This marinara sauce is made of the following ingredients : tomatoes, onions, oregano, and garlic.

NOTE

MECHANICS

Colons are also often used before long formal statements or quotations. EXAMPLE

My opinion of beauty is clearly expressed by Margaret Wolfe Hungerford in Molly Bawn: “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.”

Conventional Situations 14o. Use a colon between the hour and the minute. STYLE

TIP

Use a comma after the salutation of a personal letter.

EXAMPLE

10:00 P.M.

14p. Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter. EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES Dear Kim, Dear Uncle Remy,

8:30 A.M.

Dear Sir or Madam:

Dear Mrs. Foster:

To Whom It May Concern:

Dear Dr. Christiano:

14q. Use a colon between chapter and verse in Biblical references and between all titles and subtitles. EXAMPLES

I Chronicles 22 : 6–19 “Oral Storytelling: Making the Winter Shorter”

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Exercise 11

14 o–q

Using Colons and Commas Correctly

Make each of the following word groups into a complete sentence by supplying the item called for in the brackets. Insert colons and commas where they are needed. EXAMPLE

1. The test will begin at [time]. 1. The test will begin at 9:30 A.M.

Review E

MECHANICS

1. So far, the class has studied the following topics [list]. 2. You will need these supplies for your science-fair experiment [list]. 3. If I were writing a book about my friends and me, I would call it [title and subtitle]. 4. Meet me at the mall at [time]. 5. My classes this year are the following [list]. 6. You should begin your business letter with [salutation]. 7. The concert begins at [time]. 8. I need the following from the hardware store [list]. 9. Three countries I would like to visit are [list]. 10. The alarm is set to go off at [time].

Using End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, and Colons Correctly

The sentences in the following paragraph lack necessary end marks, commas, semicolons, and colons. Write each sentence, inserting the correct punctuation. EXAMPLE

[1] What an unusual clever caring way to help animals that is 1. What an unusual, clever, caring way to help animals that is!

[1] Animal lovers have you heard about the Sanctuary for Animals [2] Founded by Leonard and Bunny Brook the sanctuary is a safe home for all kinds of animals [3] Through the years hundreds of stray unwanted and abused animals have found a home at the sanctuary [4] It is located on the Brooks’ land in Westtown New York [5] On their two hundred acres the Brooks take care of the following animals dogs cats camels elephants lions and even an Australian kangaroo [6] Of course Mr. and

Colons

313

MECHANICS

Mrs. Brook also raise chickens keep horses and look after their other farm animals [7] The Brooks their family and their friends care for animals like this young cougar they also let the animals work for themselves [8] How do the animals work [9] The Brooks formed the Dawn Animal Agency and their animals became actors and models [10] You may have seen a camel or some of the other animals in magazines movies television shows and commercials

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CCH HAAPPTTEER R

Chapter Review A. Using End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, and Colons Correctly The following sentences lack necessary periods, question marks, exclamation points, commas, semicolons, and colons. Write each sentence, inserting the correct punctuation.

LA 70119-3251 6. Have you listened to that Bill Cosby tape Felix 7. Let me know of course if you can’t attend 8. Joy our club president will conduct the meeting and Gary our recently elected secretary will take notes 9. Looking at the harsh bright glare Mai closed the blinds 10. Carlos Montoya picked up the guitar positioned his fingers and strummed a few chords of a flamenco song 11. If you hurry you can get home before 9 00 12. Help This is an emergency 13. By the way Rosa have you seen any of Alfred Hitchcock’s movies 14. Dave hit a long fly ball but Phil was there to catch it 15. Flooding rapidly the gully quickly became a tremendous torrent 16. The Grapes of Wrath which is one of my favorite movies is about a family’s struggles during the Great Depression 17. Nicaragua Panama and Honduras are in Central America and Colombia Peru and Chile are in South America 18. One of our cats Gypsy scooted through the door across the room and out the window 19. The Lock Museum of America a fascinating place in Terryville Connecticut has more than twenty thousand locks 20. Could the surprise gift be in-line skates a new football or tickets to a concert Chapter Review

315

MECHANICS

1. The following students gave reports Carlos Sue and Alan 2. Tanay carved this beautiful soapstone cooking pot 3. Walter this is Ellen who has transferred to our school 4. Calling Simon’s name I ran to the door 5. The Wilsons’ new address is 3100 DeSoto St New Orleans

B. Proofreading a Business Letter The following business letter lacks periods, commas, semicolons, and colons. Correct each error. Gable Books 387 Monocle Lane Bozeman, MT 59715 June 28, 2003 [21] Dear Mr Gable [22] Please find enclosed a copy of Edith Wharton A Biography a book by R W B Lewis. [23]I purchased this book recently at your book shop but I have since discovered that several pages are missing [24]I am not happy with the book please send me a new copy. [25] Sincerely

MECHANICS

E. Frome

C. Proofreading for Correct Punctuation Most of the following sentences lack at least one period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, or colon. Correct each error. If a sentence is already correctly punctuated, write C. 26. He went shopping, cooked dinner, and washed the dishes. 27. For the good of us all please think before you act next time 28. Mr T E Hawk a friend of my mother’s helps me with math. 29. Caroline have your relatives arrived? 30. Yes Mario they came just last week. 31. At the center of a map of Texas you will find Brady. 32. Our new address is 72 Maple Ave Rochester NY 14612. 33. Inger designs the clothes her mother sews them 34. We followed the trail it led around the garage. 35. The world record in the long jump was held by Jesse Owens

for several years but the record is now held by another outstanding athlete. 316

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36. On June 15 1983 my father opened his first florist shop. 37. Your use of materials, for example, is very artistic. 38. My hobbies are as follows baseball ballet and magic tricks. 39. After I carry the groceries into the house my sister puts

them away. 40. Stop that now Veronica

Writing Application Using Punctuation in an Announcement

MECHANICS

Correct Punctuation Your class is sponsoring a carwash to raise money for a special project or trip. You have been chosen to write an announcement about the carwash for publication in a community newsletter. Write a brief announcement telling when and where the carwash will be, how much it will cost, what the money will be used for, and any other important details. Be sure to use end marks, commas, semicolons, and colons correctly in your announcement. Prewriting List the information that you will include in your announcement. Make sure you have included all the facts people will need to know about the purpose, time, location, and cost of the carwash. Writing As you write, remember that the purpose of your announcement is to attract customers. Start with an attentiongrabbing first sentence that explains the purpose of the carwash. Be sure to present all your information in clear, complete sentences. Add any important details that you did not list earlier. Revising Ask a friend to read your announcement. Is it clear and straightforward? Does it convince your friend that the carwash is for a good cause? If not, revise, rearrange, or add details. Publishing As you proofread your announcement, pay special attention to your use of punctuation. Remember to check the placement of colons in expressions of time. You may wish to offer your announcement-writing services to a club or service organization at your school.

Chapter Review

317

CHAPTER

Punctuation Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, Hyphens, Parentheses, Brackets, and Dashes

Diagnostic Preview

Sentences in the Diagnostic Preview, Part A, may contain more than one error.

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview.

EXAMPLE

1. [15x, a] 2. [15d, s, z] 3. [15d, y] 4. [15s, n]

1. “May I borrow your copy of ’Life‘ magazine?” Phil asked Alan. 1. “May I borrow your copy of Life magazine?” Phil asked Alan.

1. Boris Karloff (his real name was William Henry Pratt)played the monster in the original movie version of Frankenstein. 2. “Ive never known—do you? what the word kith means,” Paul said. 2. dash 3. “It (the new version of the software) corrects that problem,” said Steve. 3. brackets 4. I’ve heard that the programs announcer and interviewer will be Connie Chung. ‘

HELP

A. Proofreading Sentences for the Correct Use of Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Apostrophes, Hyphens, Parentheses, Brackets, and Dashes Revise each of the following sentences so that underlining, quotation marks, apostrophes, hyphens, parentheses, brackets, and dashes are used correctly.Hyphens are indicated by the - symbol.

‘

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5. Anne said that “Norma couldn’t understand why twenty-two people had voted against having the dance on a Friday night. 6. “A two-thirds majority said they didn’t want to have it then, Shawn said. 7. Fred said,“This magazine article titled ‘Luxury Liners of the Past is interesting.” 8. “Does the public library have copies of The Seminole Tribune or any other American Indian newspapers”? Tanya asked. 9. My sisters’ enjoy reading folk tales like the stories in Two Ways to Count to Ten by Ruby Dee. 10.“The Garcia’s cat is I don’t think they know living in our garage,” Mary said. 10. dash/dash [or parentheses]

5. [15d, s, v] 6. [15d, v, s] 7. [15d, l, m] 8. [15d, a, i] 9. [15p note, a] 10. [15d, p, z or x, s]

“

‘

B. Punctuating Quotations Correctly Add quotation marks where they are needed in each of the following sentences. 1. I wonder why so many people enjoy collecting things, said J. D. 1. “I wonder why so many people enjoy collecting things,” said J. D. “ “ 11. I know I do! Julia exclaimed. ‘ ‘“ 12. Tomás said,“My grandmother said, It’s the thrill of the hunt. “ “

13. Do you collect anything as a hobby? Josh asked Marsha. 14.“No, Marsha answered,“but I know a person who collects old cameras and antique costume jewelry.“ “ “ “ 15. My aunt collects John McCormack’s records, Kevin said. Do you know who he is? “ 16.“I’m not sure,“Julia said,“but I think that he was an Irish singer.“ “ 17. Yes, he sang in the opera; he also sang popular Irish songs such as‘The Rose of Tralee,‘ Kevin said. “ 18. My stepbrother has a collection of arrowheads. He hasn’t been collecting them very long,“Sydney said. “ 19. You should see Mrs. Kominek’s collection of Chinese jade carvings,“J. D. said.“It’s great!“ “ 20. Some people—I’m sure you know—have odd collections,“ Josh said. For instance, my aunt collects old shoelaces.“

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

11. [15d, i] 12. [15d, l, h] 13. [15d, i] 14. [15d, h, g, f] 15. [15d, h, i] 16. [15d, h, g, f] 17. [15d, l, h] 18. [15d, k, h] 19. [15d, h, i] 20. [15d, h]

Diagnostic Preview

319

“

Underlining (Italics) COM P U T E R T I P If you use a personal computer, you can probably set words in italics yourself. Most word-processing software and many printers can produce italic type.

Italics are printed letters that lean to the right—like this. When you write or type, you show that a word should be italicized by underlining it. If your composition were printed, the typesetter would set the underlined words in italics. For example, if you typed Gary Soto wrote Pacific Crossing.

the sentence would be printed like this: Gary Soto wrote Pacific Crossing. Reference Note

MECHANICS

For examples of titles that are not italicized but are enclosed in quotation marks, see page 327.

15a. Use underlining (italics) for titles and subtitles of books, plays, periodicals, films, television series, works of art, and long musical works. Type of Name

Examples

Books

My Life and Hard Times

Life on the Mississippi

To Kill a Mockingbird

Maud Martha

Our Town

I Never Sang for My Father

Plays

Hamlet Periodicals

Essence

National Geographic

Films

The Maltese Falcon

Stand and Deliver

Television Series

Nova Sesame Street

Bill Nye the Science Guy

Works of Art

Starry Night

The Dream

American Gothic

View of Toledo

Carmen

Don Giovanni

An American in Paris

Music for the Royal Fireworks

Long Musical Works

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the Daily News

15 a–c

NOTE

Underline (italicize) an article at the beginning of a title only if it is the first word of the official title. Check the table of contents or the masthead to find the preferred style for the title. Would you like to subscribe to the San Francisco Chronicle? The Seattle Times is a daily newspaper.

15b. Use underlining (italics) for the names of ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft. Type of Name

Examples

Ships

HMS Titanic the Pequod

Trains

the USS Eisenhower

the City of New Orleans

the Orient Express

Aircraft

the Silver Dart

the Hindenburg

Spacecraft

Soyuz XI

Atlantis

Golden Arrow

15c. Use underlining (italics) for words, letters, and numerals referred to as such. EXAMPLES

Double the final n before you add –ing in words like running.

If your Z’s look like 2’s, your reader may see 200 when you meant zoo.

Exercise 1

STYLE

TIP

Writers sometimes use underlining (italics) for emphasis, especially in written dialogue. Read the following sentences aloud. Notice that by italicizing different words, the writer can change the meaning of the sentence. EXAMPLES “Are you going to buy the green shirt?” asked Ellen. [Will you buy the green shirt, not the blue one?] “Are you going to buy the green shirt?” asked Ellen. [Will you buy the green shirt, not the green pants?] “Are you going to buy the green shirt?” asked Ellen. [Will you, not your brother, buy it?] “Are you going to buy the green shirt?” asked Ellen. [Will you buy it, or are you just trying it on?]

Using Underlining (Italics) Correctly

For each of the following sentences, write and underline each word or item that should be italicized. EXAMPLE

1. Does Dave Barry write a humor column for The Miami Herald? 1. The Miami Herald

1. The British spell the word humor with a u after the o. 2. In Denmark, you might see the spelling triatlon for the word triathlon. Underlining (Italics)

321

MECHANICS

EXAMPLES

MECHANICS

3. The current Newsweek has an informative article on the famine in Africa. 4. Our school newspaper, the Norwalk Valley News, is published weekly. 5. Luis Valdez wrote and directed La Bamba, a movie about the life of the singer Ritchie Valens. 6. Mr. Weyer said that the Oceanic is one of the ocean liners that sail to the Caribbean. 7. I think the movie The Sound of.Music has some of the most beautiful photography that I have ever seen and some of the most memorable songs. 8. Our local theater group is presenting The Time of.Your Life, a comedy by William Saroyan. 9. Charles Lindbergh’s Spirit of.St..Louis is on display at the museum, along with the Wright brothers’ Flyer and NASA’s Gemini IV. 10. The best novel that I read during vacation was The Summer of.the Swans.

Quotation Marks 15d. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation—a person’s exact words.

Be sure to place quotation marks both before and after a person’s exact words. EXAMPLES

The sonnet containing the words “Give me your tired, your poor, /Your huddled masses / . . .” is inscribed on the Statue of Liberty.

“When the bell rings,” said the teacher, “leave the room quietly.”

Do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation— a rewording of a direct quotation. DIRECT QUOTATION INDIRECT QUOTATION

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Tom predicted, “It will be a close game.” [Tom’s exact words] Tom predicted that it would be a close game. [not Tom’s exact words]

15 d–g

15e. A direct quotation generally begins with a capital letter. EXAMPLES

Lisa said, “The carne asada isn’t ready yet, but please help yourself to the guacamole.” While he was in prison, Richard Lovelace wrote a poem containing the well-known line “Stone walls do not a prison make.”

15f. When an expression identifying the speaker interrupts a quoted sentence, the second part of the quotation begins with a lowercase letter. EXAMPLE

“Lightning has always awed people,” explained Mrs. Worthington, “and many of us are still quite frightened by it.”

EXAMPLE

MECHANICS

A quoted sentence that is divided in this way is called a broken quotation. Notice that each part of a broken quotation is enclosed in a set of quotation marks. When the second part of a divided quotation is a complete sentence, it begins with a capital letter. “I can’t go today,” I said. “Ask me tomorrow.”

15g. A direct quotation can be set off from the rest of the sentence by one or more commas or by a question mark or an exclamation point, but not by a period.

HELP To set off means “to separate.”

If a quotation begins a sentence, a comma follows it. If a quotation ends a sentence, a comma comes before it. If a quoted sentence is interrupted, a comma follows the first part and comes before the second part. EXAMPLES

“I think science is more interesting than history,” said Bernie. Velma commented, “I especially like to do the experiments.” “Yes,” Juan added, “Bernie loves experiments, too.”

When a quotation at the beginning of a sentence ends with a question mark or an exclamation point, no comma is needed. EXAMPLES

”Is that a good video game?” Jane wanted to know. “I’ll say it is !” Debbie exclaimed.

Quotation Marks

323

15h. A comma or a period should be placed inside the closing quotation marks. EXAMPLES

“The Ramses exhibit begins over there,” said the museum guide. Darnell replied, “I’m ready to see some ancient Egyptian jewelry and artwork ”

15i. A question mark or an exclamation point should be placed inside the closing quotation marks when the quotation itself is a question or an exclamation. Otherwise, it should be placed outside. EXAMPLES

“How far have we come?” asked the exhausted man. [The quotation is a question.] Who said, “Give me liberty or give me death”? [The sentence, not the quotation, is a question.] “Jump!” ordered the firefighter. [The quotation is an exclamation.]

MECHANICS

I couldn’t believe it when he said, “No, thank you” ! [The sentence, not the quotation, is an exclamation.]

When both the sentence and the quotation at the end of the sentence are questions (or exclamations), only one question mark (or exclamation point) is used. It is placed inside the closing quotation marks. EXAMPLE

Exercise 2

Did Josh really say, “What’s Cinco de Mayo?”

Punctuating and Capitalizing Quotations

Use commas, quotation marks, and capital letters where they are needed in each of the following sentences. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Let’s go to a movie this afternoon, said Bob. 1. “Let’s go to a movie this afternoon,” said Bob.

1. When I shrieked in fear, the usher warned me to be quiet. 1. C 2. At the same time, Bob whispered“it’s only a movie— , calm down. 3. He pointed out that the people around us were getting annoyed. 3. C “

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15 h, i

4. I quietly replied I’m sorry. 5. You shouldn’t have screamed, he complained. 6. From now on I said to him I promise I’ll try to be quiet. 7. When the lights came on, Bob said “it’s time to go.” 8. Outside the theater he muttered something about people who shouldn’t go to scary movies. 9. I just couldn’t help it I explained. 10. You were afraid Bob protested even during the credits! Exercise 3

Punctuating and Capitalizing Quotations

Use capital letters, quotation marks, and other punctuation marks where they are needed in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Ashley Bryan wore traditional African clothes when he came to our school Elton said. 1. “Ashley Bryan wore traditional African clothes when he came to our school,” Elton said.

Reprinted with the permission of Atheneum Books for Young Readers, an imprint of Simon & Schuster Children’s Publishing Division from Walk Together Children, selected and illustrated by Ashley Bryan.

MECHANICS

1. Oh, like the clothes Mr. Johnson showed us in class Janell exclaimed 2. Elton asked have you read any of Ashley Bryan’s books about African culture 3. I’ve read Janell quickly replied the one titled Beat the StoryDrum, Pum-Pum 4. I’d like to read that again Elton said those African folk tales are wonderful 5. Mrs. Ray thinks Walk Together Children is excellent Janell said 6. Isn’t that Elton asked about African American spirituals 7. You’re right Janell answered and Bryan wrote that spirituals are America’s greatest contribution to world music 8. She added he grew up in New York City and began writing stories and drawing when he was still in kindergarten 9. Did you know Elton asked that he illustrated his own books 10. Bryan made woodcuts to illustrate Walk Together Children he added. Quotation Marks

325

Exercise 4

Creating Direct Quotations

Revise each of the following sentences by changing the indirect quotation to a direct quotation. Be sure to use capital letters and punctuation wherever necessary. EXAMPLE

1. I asked my grandmother whether she would like to help us paint our float. 1. “Grandma,” I asked, “would you like to help us paint our float?”

MECHANICS

1. Mayor Alaniz announced that he would lead the parade this year. 2. Ms. Feldman asked me what my plans for the big parade were. 3. I answered that my brother and I were building a float. 4. She exclaimed that she thought our float would look terrific. 5. Ron remarked that our float probably had something to do with sports. 6. I told Ron that he was exactly right. 7. Alinda asked me what sports will be represented on the float. 8. I replied that the float will salute swimming, soccer, and tennis. 9. Ron said excitedly that he would love to help. 10. Ms. Feldman said that my brother and I would probably be glad to have help. 15j. When you write dialogue (a conversation), begin a new paragraph every time the speaker changes. EXAMPLE

The young man smiled, and said, “My old master, now let me tell you the truth. My home is not so far away. It is quite near your temple. We have been old neighbors for many years.” The old monk was very surprised. “I don’t believe it. You, young man, will have your joke. Where is there another house round here?” “My master, would I lie to you? I live right beside your temple. The Green Pond is my home.” “You live in the pond?” The old monk was even more astonished. “That’s right. In fact,” said Li Aiqi, in a perfectly serious tone, “I’m not a man at all. I am a dragon.” From “Green Dragon Pond” from The Spring of Butterflies, translated by He Liyi. Copyright  1986 by He Liyi. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers.

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15 j–m

15k. When a quotation consists of several sentences, put quotation marks only at the beginning and the end of the whole quotation. EXAMPLE

“Mary Elizabeth and I will wait for you at Robertson’s Drugstore. Please try to get there as soon as you can. We don’t want to be late for the concert,” Jerome said.

15l. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. EXAMPLES

Brandon added, “My mom always says, ‘Look before you leap.’” “Did Ms. Neuman really say, ‘It’s all right to use your books and your notes during the test’?” asked Sakura.

Type of Name

Examples

Short Stories

“A Day’s Wait” “The Medicine Bag”

Poems

“In Time of Silver Rain” “Birdfoot’s Grampa”

Songs

“The Star-Spangled Banner” “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot”

Episodes of Television Series

“This Side of Paradise” “Growing Up Hispanic”

Essays

“Self-Reliance” “The Creative Process”

Articles

“Rooting for the Home Team” “Annie Leibovitz: Behind the Images”

Chapters and Other Parts of Books

“The Natural World” “The Myths of Greece and Rome” “The Double Task of Language”

Reference Note For examples of titles that are italicized, see page 320.

MECHANICS

15m. Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of short works such as short stories, poems, songs, episodes of television series, essays, articles, and chapters and other parts of books.

Quotation Marks

327

NOTE

Titles that are usually set in quotation marks are set in single quotation marks when they appear within a quotation.

HELP In general, the title of a work that can stand alone (for instance, a novel, a movie, or a newspaper) is in italics. The title of a work that is usually part of a collection or series (for instance, a short story, an episode of a television series, or a poem) is in quotation marks.

James said, “We learned ‘ The Star-Spangled Banner’ in music class today.”

EXAMPLE

Using Quotation Marks

Exercise 5

Insert quotation marks where they are needed in each of the following items. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Let’s sing ‘The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez,’ suggested Jim. 1. “Let’s sing ‘The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez,’” suggested Jim. “ “

1. “Lani, have you seen my clarinet? asked Rob. It was on this table. I need it for my lesson this afternoon. 2. The most interesting chapter in The Sea Around Us is“The Birth of an Island. 3.“Didn’t Benjamin Franklin once say, ‘Time is money? asked Myra impatiently. ‘ I Grew 4.“I believe my favorite Langston Hughes poem is As Older, said Mom. 5. Lea Evans said,“One of the greatest changes in architecture has been in the design of churches. They no longer necessarily follow traditional forms. Churches have been built that are shaped like stars, fish, and ships. 6. The latest issue of Discover magazine has a fascinating picture of a shark that swallowed an anchor. 6. C 7.“Do you know which character asked ‘What’s in a name? ‘in Romeo and Juliet? I asked. 8.“Yes, that was Juliet, answered Li.“My mother used to say that to me when I was a little girl. That’s how I first heard of Shakespeare. “ 9. A human hand has more than twenty-seven bones and thirty-five muscles! exclaimed Marcus. No wonder it can do so much. 10. There is an article titled The Customers Always Write in today’s newspaper. “

“ “

“

3. I think the song“Don’t Touch My Hat is on the CD titled The Road to Ensenada.

“

2. Today’s copy of the San Francisco Chronicle contains the article“Moose on the Move.

“‘

1. My favorite poem is“I Hear America Singing, which I read in the book Leaves of Grass.

“

Correctly punctuate each of the following sentences with underlining (italics) and quotation marks.

“‘

“

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“

MECHANICS

MEETING THE CHALLENGE

Punctuating Paragraphs

Review A

Revise the following paragraphs, adding quotation marks and other marks of punctuation wherever necessary. Remember to begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes. If a sentence is already correct, write C. Carets ( ) indicate paragraph EXAMPLES

breaks. [1] Mr. Brown asked Can you baby-sit tonight? 1. Mr. Brown asked, “Can you baby-sit tonight?”

HELP The marks of punctuation that are already included in Review A are correct.

[2] Sure I said I’d be happy to. 2. “Sure,” I said. “I’d be happy to.”

[1] Last night I baby-sat for the Browns, a new family on our block. [2]“Come in, Mrs. Brown greeted me. [3]“You must be Lisa. [4]“Hello, Mrs. Brown, I replied. [5]“I’m looking forward to meeting the children. [6]“First, Mrs. Brown explained “,I want you to meet Ludwig. [7]“Is he a member of the family? I asked. [8]“In a way, replied Mrs. Brown as she led me to the kitchen and pointed to an aging dachshund. [9]“That is Ludwig. [10] He rules this house and everyone in it. [11] Mr. Brown entered the kitchen and introduced himself. [12]“I see that you’ve met Ludwig, he said. [13]“Yes, Mrs. Brown “ answered for me. [14] Why don’t you give Lisa her instructions while I go find the children? [15]“If Ludwig whines, said Mr. Brown,“please give him a dog “ treat. [16] Should I take him for a walk?I asked. [17]“No, replied “ Mr. Brown. [18] Just let him out into the yard. [19] Mrs. Brown came back into the kitchen with the children. [20]“Did my husband remind you to cover Ludwig when he falls asleep?she asked. [21]“I’ll remember, I promised. [22]“Also, what should I do for the children? [23]“Don’t worry, said Mr. Brown. [24] “They’ll behave themselves and go to bed when they’re supposed to.“[25] As I told you, laughed Mrs. Brown“,Ludwig rules this house and everyone in it, even the sitter!

1. C

“

6. ^ (before “First”)

“

MECHANICS

11. C

“

19. C

“

Quotation Marks

329

“

Apostrophes Possessive Case The possessive case of a noun or a pronoun shows ownership or possession. EXAMPLES

Kathleen’s desk

anybody’s guess

his bat

an hour’s time

their car

those horses’ manes

15n. To form the possessive case of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s. EXAMPLES

a boy’s cap

Cleon’s pen

the baby’s toy

Charles’s opinion

NOTE

MECHANICS

A proper noun ending in s may take only an apostrophe to form the possessive case if the addition of an apostrophe and an s would make the name awkward to say. EXAMPLES

the Philippines’ government Ms. Rodgers’ cat

Exercise 6

Using Apostrophes for Singular Possessives

Identify the word that needs an apostrophe in each of the following sentences. Then, write that word correctly punctuated. EXAMPLE

1. The Prado in Madrid, Spain, is one of the worlds greatest museums. 1. worlds—world’s ‘

1. Shown on the next page is one of the Prados paintings by Diego Velázquez, Las Meninas. 2. Velázquezs painting is known in English as The Maids of Honor. 3. In the center of the canvas is Princess Margarita, the royal couples daughter. 4. To the princesss right, a kneeling maid of honor offers her something to drink. ‘

‘

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‘

15 n–p

5. To the royal childs left, another maid of honor curtsies. 6. On the far left of the canvas, you can see the artists own image, for he has painted himself ! 7. The palaces other important people, such as the chamberlain and a court jester, also appear. 8. The faces of Margaritas parents are reflected in the mirror on the back wall. 9. In the foreground, the royal dog ignores a young guests invitation to play. 10. This paintings fame has grown since it was painted in 1656, and each year millions of people see it when they visit the Prado. ‘

‘

The Granger Collection, New York

‘

MECHANICS

‘

15o. To form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s. EXAMPLES

mice’s tracks

men’s hats

children’s games

teeth’s enamel

women’s shoes

Sioux’s land

15p. To form the possessive case of a plural noun ending in s, add only the apostrophe. EXAMPLES

cats’ basket

four days’ delay

brushes’ bristles

the Carsons’ bungalow

NOTE

In general, you should not use an apostrophe to form the plural of a noun. INCORRECT CORRECT CORRECT

Three girl’s lost their tickets. Three girls lost their tickets. [plural] Three girls’ tickets were lost. [plural possessive]

Reference Note For information on using apostrophes to form the plurals of letters, numerals, and symbols and of words used as words, see page 337.

Apostrophes

331

Exercise 7

Writing Possessives

Using the possessive case, rewrite each of the following word groups. Be sure to insert an apostrophe in the correct place. EXAMPLE

1. food for the dog 1. the dog’s food

1. the nominee of the party 2. the clothes of the babies 3. the grades of my sister 4. the name tags of the guests 5. the dish for the cat Reference Note For more information about possessive personal pronouns, see page 30.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

the yard of Mr. Granger the muscles of my foot the strength of the oxen the computer of James the members of the teams

15q. Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns. EXAMPLES

Is that sticker yours or mine? Our cat is friendlier than theirs.

MECHANICS

His report on Cherokee folk tales was as good as hers. NOTE

Reference Note

Do not confuse the possessive pronoun its with the contraction it’s. The possessive pronoun its means belonging to it. The expression it’s is a contraction of the words it is or it has.

For a list of words that are often confused, see Chapter 16.

Reference Note For more information about indefinite pronouns, see page 32.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN CONTRACTIONS

Please give the cat its rubber ball. It’s time for the soccer tournament. It’s taken three hours.

15r. To form the possessive case of some indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and an s. EXAMPLES

neither ’s homework

somebody ’s jacket

everyone’s choice

anything’s cost

Oral Practice

Creating Possessives of Personal and Indefinite Pronouns

Read each of the following expressions aloud. Then, read it again, changing the expression so that it uses the possessive case. Finally, say whether the revised expression needs an apostrophe when written. EXAMPLE

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Chapter 15

Punctuation

1. the park for everyone 1. everyone’s park

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

the logo of it the idea of neither the backpack of someone the guess of anybody the land owned by no one

Contractions 15s. Use an apostrophe to show where letters, words, or numerals have been omitted (left out) in a contraction.

A contraction is a shortened form of a word, a numeral, or a word group. The apostrophe in a contraction shows where letters or numerals have been left out. Contractions are acceptable in informal writing, but in formal writing, you should generally avoid using them. Common Contractions I am .......................... I’m

they had.......... they’d

1999.......................... ’99

where is ........ where’s

let us ...................... let’s

we are .............. we’re

of the clock ....... o’clock

he is..................... he’s

she would ............ she’d

you will............. you’ll

we have............... we’ve

what is .............what’s

they are............. they’re

I would .................. I’d

The word not can be shortened to n’t and added to a verb, usually without any change in the spelling of the verb. EXAMPLES

EXCEPTIONS

is not ........................ isn’t

has not .............. hasn’t

are not .................. aren’t

have not ........ haven’t

does not.............. doesn’t

had not ............ hadn’t

do not .................... don’t

should not .. shouldn’t

was not ................ wasn’t

would not .... wouldn’t

were not ............ weren’t

could not ...... couldn’t

will not .................. won’t

cannot ................ can’t

15 q–s 1. their opinion 2. anyone’s footprints 3. nobody’s fault 4. either’s turn 5. your stereo 6. its logo 7. neither’s idea 8. someone’s backpack 9. anybody’s guess 10. no one’s land

STYLE

TIP

In formal writing, avoid using a contraction of a year. In informal writing, if the reader cannot determine the time period from the context of the sentence, it is best to write out the year. EXAMPLE The famous tenor toured Europe in ’01. [Did the tenor tour in 1801, 1901, or 2001?] The famous tenor toured Europe in 2001.

Apostrophes

333

MECHANICS

1. the opinion of them 2. the footprints of anyone 3. the fault of nobody 4. the turn of either 5. the stereo that belongs to you

Be careful not to confuse contractions with possessive pronouns. Contractions

Possessive Pronouns

It’s Friday. [It is]

Its nest is over there.

It’s been a pleasure. [It has] Who’s your server? [Who is]

Whose is this backpack?

Who’s been practicing the piano? [Who has] They’re arriving soon. [They are]

Their parakeet is friendly.

There’s the path. [There is]

That rosebush is theirs.

Using Apostrophes Correctly

Exercise 8

Some sentences in Exercise 8 contain more than one error.

Correct each error in the use of possessive forms and contractions in the following sentences. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Arent you going with us at one oclock? 1. Aren’t; o’clock

‘

1. Wed better chain our bicycles to the rack. 2. You’re old cars seen better days, hasn’t it? 2. Your 3. She wasnt too happy to see us. 4. Whose ringing the doorbell? 4. Who’s 5. We wont forget how helpful youve been. 6. Im certain youll be invited. 7. Whose turn is it to take attendance? 7. C 8. Anns an excellent swimmer, but she cant dive. 9. They’re turning in their’s now. 9. theirs 10. Shes sure theyll show up before its over. ‘

‘

Exercise 9

‘

MECHANICS

HELP

Punctuating Contractions

For each of the following sentences, identify the word that needs an apostrophe to indicate a contraction. Then, write the word correctly. EXAMPLE

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1. Whats the best route from Lawrenceville, New Jersey, to Newtown, Pennsylvania? 1. Whats—What’s

‘

1. Theres one especially pretty route you can take to get there. 2. I think youll enjoy the drive. 3. You shouldnt go due west directly. 4. Youve got to go north or south first. 5. Its easier to go south on Route 206 to Route U.S. 1, cross the Delaware River, and then go north on Route 32 to Yardley. 6. From Yardley, turn left on Route 322, and in a little while Im sure you will find yourself in Newtown. 7. If youd prefer a different route, go south on Route 206 to Route 546 and make a right turn to go west. 8. After you cross the Delaware River and the road becomes 532, dont turn until Linton Hill Road. 9. When you turn left onto Linton Hill Road, it wont be long before you arrive in Newtown. 10. Heres a map you can use to help you find your way. ‘

‘

MECHANICS

‘

Exercise 10 Writing Contractions

Write a suitable contraction to correctly complete each of the following sentences. Answers may vary. EXAMPLE

1. Do you know 1. what’s

for supper?

1. my sweater? 1. Where’s 2. lying on the beach. 2. It’s 3. We help you right now. 3. can’t 4. dinner ready? 4. Isn’t 5. They played that game before. 5. haven’t 6. She was in the class of . 6. ‘01 7. go to the museum. 7. Let’s 8. I know that game. 8. don’t 9. rather order the salad. 9. He’d 10. Is it nine yet? 10. o’clock

Apostrophes

335

Exercise 11

Writing Contractions

Write the contraction of the underlined word or words in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

MECHANICS

1. It’s 2. couldn’t 3. who’s 4. don’t 5. they’ve 6. can’t

7. would’ve 8. weren’t 9. I’m 10. wasn’t

336

Chapter 15

1. If you think it should have been easy to visit the building shown below, guess again! 1. should’ve

1. It is the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet, which my parents and I visited last year. 2. The city of Lhasa is two miles high in the Himalaya Mountains, and we could not exercise much because the lack of oxygen made us tired. 3. The Potala Palace is the former residence of the Tibetan spiritual leader, who has been living in exile in India. 4. Because this palace is a holy shrine, pilgrims do not mind traveling on foot from all over the country to worship there. 5. After they have bought yak butter in the city square, they take it to the palace as an offering. 6. From the photograph, you cannot imagine how steep those stairs on the right are! 7. Because it would have taken a long time to climb them, our bus driver took us directly to the rear entrance on the left. 8. Once inside, we spent hours exploring the palace, but we were.not able to visit most of its more than one thousand rooms! 9. I am sure we would never have found our way out without our guide, who led us to an exit on the right. 10. Walking down the stairs was not too hard, and soon we were in the beautiful central square in the Himalayan sunshine!

Punctuation

15 t

Plurals 15t. Use an apostrophe and an s to form the plurals of letters, numerals, and symbols, and of words referred to as words. Your o’s look like a’ s, and your u ’ s look like n’s.

EXAMPLES

There are three 5 ’s and two 8 ’s in his telephone number. Place $ ’s before monetary amounts and ¢ ’s after. One sign of immature writing is too many and ’s.

Using Underlining (Italics) and Apostrophes Correctly

Review B

STYLE

TIP

In your reading, you may notice that an apostrophe is not always used in forming the kinds of plurals in Rule 15t. Nowadays, many writers leave out the apostrophe if a plural meaning is clear without it. However, to make sure that your writing is clear, you should use an apostrophe.

For each of the following sentences, add underlining or apostrophes as necessary. The punctuation already supplied is correct. 1. One of my oldest brothers college textbooks is History of Art by H. W. Janson. 1. brother’s; History of Art

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

‘

1. Whos the painter who inspired the musical play Sunday in the Park with George? 2. Hes Georges Seurat, one of Frances greatest painters. 3. “The young childrens reactions to Jacob Lawrences paintings were surprising,” Angie said. 4. Didnt you read the review in Entertainment Weekly of the movie Vincent & Theo? 5. Its about Vincent van Gogh and his brother, who often supported him. 6. “I like Jasper Johns,” Rick said, “but I cant tell if that is one of Johnss paintings.” 7. Have you ever tried counting all the 2s or 4s in his painting Numbers in Color? 8. On a class trip to Chicago, we saw a bronze statue titled Horse, by Duchamp-Villon. 9. In our group, everybodys favorite painting is Cow’s Skull: Red,.White.and Blue, by Georgia O’Keeffe. 10. “On PBS, Ive seen an American Playhouse program about O’Keeffes life,” Joyce said. ‘

‘

Apostrophes

337

Hyphens 15u. Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line.

COM P U T E R T I P

MECHANICS

Some word-processing programs will automatically divide a word at the end of a line and insert a hyphen. Sometimes, such hyphenation will violate one of the rules given here. Always check a printout of your writing to see how the computer has hyphenated words at the ends of lines. If a hyphen is used incorrectly, revise the line by moving the word or by dividing the word yourself and inserting a “hard” hyphen (one that the computer cannot move).

EXAMPLE

Will you and Marguerite help me put the silverware on the table?

When dividing a word at the end of a line, remember the following rules: (1) Divide a word only between syllables. INCORRECT CORRECT

The tall man in the pinstriped suit sat beside the tree, looking bewildered. The tall man in the pinstriped suit sat be side the tree, looking bewildered.

(2) Do not divide a one-syllable word. INCORRECT CORRECT

Exercises like push-ups help to develop strength of the arm muscles. Exercises like push-ups help to develop strength of the arm muscles.

(3) Do not divide a word so that one letter stands alone. INCORRECT CORRECT

STYLE

TIP

Hyphens are often used in compound names. In such cases, the hyphen is thought of as part of the name’s spelling.

15v. Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twentyone to ninety-nine and with fractions used as modifiers. EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES Jackie Joyner-Kersee [person] Rikki-tikki-tavi [animal] Wilkes-Barre [city] If you are not sure whether a compound name is hyphenated, ask the person with that name, or look in a reference source.

338

Chapter 15

The seating capacity of the new stadium is enormous. The seating capacity of the new stadium is enormous.

Punctuation

During a leap year, there are twenty-nine days in February. Thirty-two species of birds are known to live in the area. Did you know that Congress may override a president’s veto by a two-thirds majority? [Two-thirds is an adjective that modifies majority.] The pumpkin pie was so good that only one sixth of it is left. [One sixth is not used as a modifier. Instead, sixth is a noun modified by the adjective one. Fractions used as nouns do not have hyphens.]

15 u–w

15w. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex–, self–, all–, and great– and with the suffixes –elect and –free. ex-coach

president-elect

all-star

great-uncle

self-propelled

fat-free

Exercise 12 Using Hyphens Correctly

Write an expression—using words, not numerals—to replace the blank in each of the following sentences. Use hyphens where they are needed with compound numbers and fractions. EXAMPLE

1. The sum of ten and fifteen is 1. twenty-five

1. January, March, May, July, August, October, and December are the months that have days. 2. of the moon is visible from the earth, but the other half can be seen only from outer space. 3. In twenty years I will be years old. 4. I used cup, which is 25 percent of the original one cup. 5. Our seventh-grade class has students. 6. The train ride is short; the route is only miles long. 7. The doctor said that the heel of my shoe needs to be raised of an inch. 8. Who decided that there should be hours in a day? 9. teaspoon of vanilla is not enough in the cake batter. 10. Only about of the expected people actually attended.

HELP The prefix half often requires a hyphen, as in half-life, half-moon, and half-truth. However, sometimes it is used without a hyphen, either as a part of a single word (as in halftone, halfway, and halfback) or as a separate word (as in half shell, half pint, and half note). If you are not sure how to spell a word containing half, look up the word in a dictionary.

HELP Hyphenate a compound adjective when it comes before the noun it modifies. EXAMPLE an event that is well organized a well-organized event

Review C

Punctuating Sentences Correctly

Rewrite the following sentences, correcting any errors in the use of underlining, quotation marks, commas, apostrophes, and hyphens. Hyphens are indicated by the - symbol. EXAMPLE

1. For the talent show, Leila is planning to recite Poes poem The Raven. 1. For the talent show, Leila is planning to recite Poe’s poem “The Raven.”

1. Queen Hatshepsut seized the throne of Egypt in 1503 B.C. and ruled for twenty-one years. “ 2. Whos borrowed my scissors? demanded Jean. 3. Its hard to decide which authors story I should read first. 4. A weeks vacation never seems long enough.

Some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, whether they come before or after the nouns they modify. EXAMPLE a full-scale model a model that is full-scale If you are not sure whether a compound adjective is always hyphenated, look it up in an up-to-date dictionary.

“

‘

Hyphens

339

MECHANICS

EXAMPLES

‘

5. After wed eaten supper, we decided to watch an old episode of Star Trek. 6. The driver shouted,“Move to the rear of the bus! 7. We didnt eat any salmon at all during our visit to Oregon. 7. Or-egon or Ore-gon or Oregon 8. “I wasnt very sorry, admitted the clerk,“to see those three picky customers leave. “ 9. Very Short on Law and Order is my favorite chapter in Tough Trip Through Paradise. 9. Tough 10. Our phone number has two 6s and two 4s. “

‘

“

‘

Parentheses 15x. Use parentheses to enclose material that is added to a sentence but is not considered of major importance. EXAMPLES

Emilio Aguinaldo (1869 –1964) was a Filipino statesman.

MECHANICS

Mom and Dad bought a kilim (pronounced ki • le– m) rug from our Turkish friend Ali. STYLE

TIP

Too many parenthetical expressions in a piece of writing can keep readers from seeing the main idea. Keep your meaning clear by limiting the number of parenthetical expressions you use.

Material enclosed in parentheses may be as short as a single word or as long as a short sentence. A short sentence in parentheses may stand alone or be contained within another sentence. Notice that a parenthetical sentence within a sentence is not capitalized and has no end mark. EXAMPLES

Please be quiet during the performance. (Take crying babies to the lobby.) Jack Echohawk (he’s Ben’s cousin) told us about growing up on a reservation.

Exercise 13 Correcting Sentences by Adding

Parentheses

Insert parentheses where they are needed in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. My bicycle I’ve had it for three years is a ten-speed. 1. My bicycle (I’ve had it for three years) is a ten-speed.

1. At the age of fourteen, Martina Hingis began playing tennis (my favorite sport) professionally. 340

Chapter 15

Punctuation

2. Elijah McCoy (1843–1929)invented a way to oil moving machinery. 3. I bought a new calculator (my old one stopped working )and a notebook. - ) was one of Europe’s 4. Charlemagne (pronounced shärl • man most famous rulers. 5. Lian Young (she’s a friend of mine)told our class about China. 6. Jojoba(pronounced ho • hob ) is an evergreen desert shrub. 7. Albert Einstein (1879–1955)formulated the theory of relativity. 8. The soloist (he’s my cousin)performed “Memory.” 9. I read a book by the author E. M. Forster (1879–1970.) 10. The relevant chart shows the election results.(See page 88.)

15 x, y

10. Item is also correct without parentheses.

Brackets 15y. Use brackets to enclose an explanation added to quoted or parenthetical material. Elena said in her acceptance speech, “I am honored by this [the award] , and I would like to thank the students who volunteered this year.” [The words are enclosed in brackets to show that they have been inserted into the quotation and are not the words of the speaker.]

MECHANICS

EXAMPLES

By a vote of 6 to 1, the council approved the petition to build a nature preserve. (See next page for a map [Diagram A] of the proposed reserve.)

Dashes A parenthetical expression is a word or phrase that breaks into the main thought of a sentence. Parenthetical expressions are usually set off by commas or parentheses. EXAMPLES

Grandma Moses, for example, started painting in her seventies. In the first act of the play, the butler (Theo Karras) was the detective’s prime suspect.

Some parenthetical elements need stronger emphasis. In such cases, a dash is used.

Reference Note For more about using commas with parenthetical expressions, see page 303. For more about using parentheses, see page 340.

Dashes

341

15z. Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in thought or speech. EXAMPLES

The right thing to do — I know it’ll be hard — is to apologize. “Do you think Ann will mind — mind very much— if I borrow her sunglasses?” asked Melody.

Exercise 14 Correcting Sentences by Adding Dashes

and Brackets

Insert dashes or brackets where they are needed in the following sentences. Carets indicate placement of dashes. EXAMPLE

1. The school lunchroom it was a dull green has been painted a cheery yellow. 1. The school lunchroom—it was a dull green—has been painted a cheery yellow.

MECHANICS

1. Fireflies I can’t remember where I read this make what is called cold light. 2. Roberto has always wanted to be can’t you guess? an astronaut. 3. Shania Twain I really want to see her concert has a great new song out. 4. Do you mind I don’t if Jill and Marcus go to the mall with us tomorrow? 5. The best way to learn how to swim that is, after you’ve learned the basic strokes is to practice. 6. (See page 8[Box A]of the school yearbook for a list of the drama club’s best performers.) 7. Where is the computer game I’ve looked everywhere for it that I borrowed from Alex? 8. Please hand me if you don’t mind the stack of magazines on the table behind you. 9. The newspaper quoted our principal as saying, “The girls’ volleyball team took both the district[District 14–5A]and regional championships.” 10. The class trip to Chicago I’ve never been there will include a visit to the Art Institute.

342

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Punctuation

CHAPTER

Chapter Review A. Using Underlining (Italics), Quotation Marks, Dashes, Parentheses, and Brackets

month’s Seventeen magazine? 4. The poet Wallace Stevens (1879–1955)won a Pulitzer Prize. 5. (See the map of Normandy[Figure D]for the deployment of the German forces on June 6.) 6. The reading list included the novel Great Expectations. 7. Sharon she’s my youngest cousin asked me to tell her a story. 8. The bearded man you probably guessed this is really the thief in disguise. 9. He misspelled the word accommodate by leaving out one c. 10. Aunt Rosie the aunt I told you about went to Mexico on the cruise ship Princess.

MECHANICS

1. [15m] 2. [15z or x] 3. [15m, n, a] 4. [15x] 5. [15y] 6. [15a] 7. [15z or x] 8. [15z or x] 9. [15c] 10. [15z or x, b]

“

1. The song Amazing Grace has been sung for many years. 2. Garth Brooks I love his music is giving a benefit concert. “ 3. Did you see the article titled Yogamania that appeared in last “

Numerals in brackets refer to rules tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

The following sentences contain errors in the use of underlining (italics), quotation marks, dashes, parentheses, and brackets. Rewrite the sentences correctly. Carets indicate placement of dashes. “

Parentheses are also acceptable in items 2, 7, 8, and 10.

B. Proofreading for the Correct Use of Punctuation and Capitalization in Quotations The following sentences contain errors in the use of punctuation and capitalization in quotations. Rewrite the sentences correctly. If a sentence is already correct, write C. 11. [15d, n, l, i] 12. [15d, s, g, i] 13. [15d, h, n] 14. [15d, i] 15. [15d, l, m, h] 16. [15d, f, i]

11. “Did you read Robert Hayden’s poem “Those Winter

Sundays”? asked Jorge. 12. “Who’s your favorite baseball player.” asked Don? 13. “Meet me at 2:30 sharp,” my sister’s note read. 14. Why did Ms. Redfeather say, “I need to see a doctor”? 15. Ms. Liu said, Turn to Chapter 7, ‘Fractions,’ now. 16. “Did you know,” Katrina said, “That Robin Williams organizes fund-raisers for the homeless”? Chapter Review

343

17. Akeem exclaimed, “Those giant redwoods are more than

17. [15d, e, i] 18. [15d, i] 19. [15d] 20. [15d, e, h]

three hundred feet tall!” 18. “Are the La Vernia Bears playing tomorrow? Lorraine asked Ted. 19. Chang predicted that “it would be a rainy summer.” 20. “he can work ten hours a week”, said Liang.

C. Writing Dialogue Correctly

HELP

21. [15d, h] 22. [15d, i] 23. [15j, d, h] 24. [15d, i] 25. [15j, d, h, f, k] 26. [15k] 27. [15k, s, h, d] 28. [15j, d, h, f, s, i] 29. [15j, d, s, a, h, f, r] 30. [15j, d, s, i]

Revise the following paragraphs, adding quotation marks and other punctuation marks wherever necessary. Begin a new paragraph each time the speaker changes. [21] A few of us are starting a reading group said Michael. [22] Would you like to join us? [23] That sounds like fun replied Audra. [24] Who is in the group? [25] Well, I am, of course Michael said and Stephanie, Jeff, and Kerry. [26] I’ve asked Megan to join, too, but she may be too busy. [27] She’s going to let me

know tomorrow. [28] What books are you going to read asked Audra or haven’t you decided that yet? [29] I’m going to suggest that we start with The Owl Service, by Alan Garner, said Michael but only if it is everyones choice. [30] I’d love to join! said Audra.

D. Using Apostrophes and Hyphens The following sentences contain errors in the use of apostrophes and hyphens. Correctly write each incorrectly punctuated word. Hyphens are indicated by the - symbol.

31. The test includes twentytwo questions. 32. Its easy to see that you like to use &s instead of writing ‘

out the word and each time. 33. One fourth of the childrens toys were broken. 34. My two sisters bicycles are sporty, but neithers is as sporty as mine. 34. sporty 35. Isnt this play often considered one of Shakespeares best works, Stephanie? 35. works 36. Whats the lowest common denominator of these two numbers? 37. Are those lawn chairs our’s or the Millers? 37. ours 38. Theyre drawings of Augusta Savages sculptures. ‘

‘

31. [15v] 32. [15s, t] 33. [15v, o] 34. [15p, r, u(3), q] 35. [15s, n, u(2)] 36. [15s] 37. [15q, p] 38. [15s, n]

‘

344

Chapter 12 15

Punctuation

‘

MECHANICS

Some sentences in Part C may not require additional punctuation.

‘

39. My baby brothers a good sleeper; he should have a mobile ‘

made of Zs instead of airplanes over his crib. 40. Whos going to help repaint the clubs float for the parade?

39. [15s, t] 40. [15s, n]

‘

Writing Application Using Quotations in Reports Direct Quotations Your social studies class is taking a survey of people’s attitudes toward recycling. Interview at least three people from different households in your community. Ask them specific questions to find out whether they think recycling is important; what items, if any, they recycle; and how they think recycling could be made easier for people in the community. Based on the information you gather, write a brief report about recycling in your community. In your report, quote several people’s exact words.

MECHANICS

Prewriting First, think of several questions to ask. Next, decide whom you want to interview. Begin each interview by recording the person’s name, age, and occupation. When all your interviews are completed, compare your interviewees’ responses. What conclusions can you draw about attitudes toward recycling in your community? Jot down some notes to help you organize your information. Writing In the first paragraph of your draft, give a statement that sums up the main idea of your report. Then, use your interviewees’ answers to support your main idea. Revising Re-read your first draft. Does the body of your report support your main idea? If not, you may need to rethink and revise your main idea. Publishing As you proofread your report, check your quotations against your notes. Make sure that you have put quotation marks around direct quotations and that you have capitalized and punctuated all quotations correctly. Your class may want to combine the information from all the reports and create a wall chart showing the community’s attitudes toward recycling.

Chapter Review

345

CHAPTER

Spelling Improving Your Spelling

Diagnostic Preview Numerals and terms in brackets refer to rules and concepts tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview. 1. tomatoes/strawberries [16i(7, 3)] 2. daily/training [16d, h] 3. led [lead, led] 4. laid/knives [16g, i(5)] 5. scissors [16i(1)] 6. two/nieces [to, too, two;16a] 7. benches/freezing [16i(2), e] 8. studies/swimming [16i(3), h] 9. Weaving [16e] 10. piece/proceed [16a, b]

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Spelling

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Spelling Write correctly all of the misspelled words in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Andrew carefuly lifted the massive lid and peekked inside the trunk. 1. carefully, peeked

1. Do you have any fresh tomatos or strawberrys? 2. Alex rides her bicycle forty miles dayly when she is in trainning. 3. The experienced tour guide lead the students to the base of the trail. 4. My sister made the salad while I layed the spoons and knifes on the table for dinner. 5. Would you please hand me the scissor’s? 6. Mr. Escobar’s too neices went to the annual family reunion. 7. Icicles formed on the park benchs when the temperature dropped below freezeing. 8. Angela’s favorite classes are social studys and swiming. 9. On Wednesday our science class watched Weavving Ants, a film about the insect world. 10. Take out a peice of paper, and then prosede with the test.

Good Spelling Habits Practicing the following techniques can help you spell words correctly.

2. Use a dictionary. When you find that you have misspelled a word, look it up in a dictionary. Do not guess about the correct spelling. 3. Spell by syllables. A syllable is a word part that is pronounced as one uninterrupted sound. EXAMPLES

thor •ough [two syllables] sep•a•rate [three syllables]

Instead of trying to learn how to pronounce and spell a whole word, break it up into its syllables whenever possible. Exercise 1

Look up the following words in a dictionary, and divide each one into syllables. Pronounce each syllable correctly, and learn to spell the word by syllables. 8. definition 9. recognize 10. awkward 11. accept 12. interest 13. temperament 14. conscious

If you are not sure how to pronounce a word, look it up in an upto-date dictionary. In the dictionary, you will usually find the pronunciation given in parentheses after the word. The information in parentheses will show you the sounds used, the syllable breaks, and any accented syllables. A guide to the pronunciation symbols is usually found at the front of the dictionary.

STYLE

TIP

In some names, marks that show how to pronounce a word are considered part of the spelling. PEOPLE Díaz

Rölvaag

PLACES Aswân

Cádiz

Z iz ka

Compiègne

Spelling by Syllables

1. legislature 2. perspire 3. modern 4. temperature 5. probably 6. similar 7. library

HELP

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

separate opportunity eliminate government business appreciation

If you are not sure about the spelling of a name, ask the person with that name or look it up in a dictionary or other reference source.

Answers may vary according to the dictionary used. These answers are from Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Third Edition. Good Spelling Habits

347

MECHANICS

1. To learn the spelling of a word, pronounce it, study it, and write it. Pronounce words carefully. Mispronunciation can lead to misspelling. For instance, if you say ath •a •lete instead of ath •lete, you will be more likely to spell the word incorrectly. • First, make sure that you know how to pronounce the word correctly, and then practice saying it. • Second, study the word. Notice especially any parts that might be hard to remember. • Third, write the word from memory. Check your spelling. • If you misspelled the word, repeat the three steps of this process.

4. Proofread for careless spelling errors. Re-read your writing carefully, and correct any mistakes and unclear letters. For example, make sure that your i’s are dotted, that your t’s are crossed, and that your g’s don’t look like q’s. 5. Keep a spelling notebook. Divide each page into four columns:

MECHANICS

COM P U T E R T I P A computer can help you catch spelling mistakes. Use the computer’s spellchecker whenever you proofread your writing. Remember, though, that a computer’s spellchecker points out misspellings but not misused homonyms. For example, if you use their when you should use there, a spellchecker won’t catch the mistake. Always doublecheck your writing to make sure that your spelling is error-free.

COLUMN 1

Correctly spell any word you missed. (Never enter a misspelling.)

COLUMN 2

Write the word again, dividing it into syllables and indicating which syllables are accented or stressed.

COLUMN 3

Write the word once more, circling the spot that gives you trouble.

COLUMN 4

Jot down any comments that might help you remember the correct spelling.

Here is an example of how you might make entries for two words that are often misspelled.

Correct Spelling

Syllables and Accents

attendance

at • tend´• ance

Trouble Spot

Comments

of attending attend a nce Think a dance. ary sary un + necess • sar •y u nn eces es • c´ c.) ne 16 • le un ru y (Study unnecessar

Spelling Rules ie and ei 16a. Write ie when the sound is long e, except after c. EXAMPLES EXCEPTIONS

348

Chapter 16

Spelling

chief, brief, believe, yield, receive, deceive seize, leisure, either, neither, protein

16 a

Write ei when the sound is not long e, especially when the sound is long a. EXAMPLES

sleigh, veil, freight, weight, height, foreign

EXCEPTIONS

friend, mischief, ancient, pie

Exercise 2

Writing Words with ie and ei

Rewrite the following words, adding the letters ie or ei. 1. conc . . . t 1. conceit

1. dec .ei. . ve 2. n .ei. . ther 3. rec . ei. . ve 4. h . ei. . ght 5. fr .ie . . nd 6. l . ei . . sure 7. misch . ie. . f 8. w . ei. . ght 9. . ei. . ght 10. sl . ei . . gh Exercise 3

11. fr .ei. . ght 12. n . ei. . ghbor 13. c . ei. . ling 14. shr . ie. . k 15. rec .ei. . pt 16. p .ie. . ce 17. r . ei. . gn 18. th . ei. . r 19. s . ei. . ze 20. br . ie. . f

Proofreading Sentences to Correct Spelling Errors

Most of the following sentences contain a spelling error involving the use of ie or ei. Write each misspelled word correctly. If a sentence has no spelling error, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Last summer I recieved an airline ticket as a birthday gift. 1. received

1. I used the ticket to fly to Puerto Rico with my freind Alicia to see my grandmother and other relatives. 2. We flew to San Juan, where my grandmother’s nieghbor, Mr. Perez, met us and drove us to my grandmother’s house. 3. When we got there, all of my relatives—aunts, uncles, cousins, neices, nephews—came to welcome us. 4. They couldn’t believe that niether of us had ever been to Puerto Rico before, so they took us sightseeing the next day.

TIPS

TRICKS

You may find this timetested verse a help in remembering the ie rule. I before e Except after c Or when sounded like a, As in neighbor and weigh. If you use this rhyme, remember that “i before e” refers only to words in which these two letters are in the same syllable and stand for the sound of long e, as in the examples under Rule 16a.

1. ie 2. ei

3. ie 4. ei

Spelling Rules

349

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

5. C 6. ie

7. ei

8. ie 9. ie 10. ei

5. First, we walked through a field in Humacao, which is located on the Caribbean Sea. 6. Then, we drove along the coast to Ponce, the island’s cheif city after San Juan. 7. Continuing north from Ponce, we thought that we’d take a liesurely drive on the mountain road Ruta Panoramica, which means “Panoramic Road.” 8. However, the road turned and twisted so much that I was releived to get back on the main road. 9. After we had a breif rest that afternoon, we explored the western part of the island. 10. Within a week, Puerto Rico no longer seemed foriegn to us. N

ATLANTIC OCEAN W

Arecibo

SAN JUAN

Aguadilla

Carolina

San Sebastián

Bayamón Fajardo

PUERTO RICO Mayagüez

MECHANICS

San Germán

Caguas

Utuado

CORD

ILLERA

CENTR

Sierra de Luquillo

Humacao Sierra de Cayey

Yauco

Yabucoa Ponce

Santa Isabel

Panoramic Route Highways

CARIBBEAN SEA

–cede, –ceed, and –sede 16b. The only English word ending in –sede is supersede. The only English words ending in –ceed are exceed, proceed, and succeed. Most other words with this sound end in –cede. EXAMPLES

concede

recede

precede

secede

Prefixes and Suffixes A prefix is a letter or a group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. A suffix is a letter or a group of letters added to the end of a word to change its meaning. 350

Chapter 16

Spelling

16 b–e

16c. When adding a prefix to a word, do not change the spelling of the word itself. il + legal = illegal

HELP A derivative is a word formed by adding one or more prefixes or suffixes to the base form of a word.

un + natural = unnatural dis + appear = disappear mis + spent = misspent

Exercise 4

Spelling Words with Prefixes

Spell each of the following words, adding the given prefix. EXAMPLE

EXAMPLES warmth [from warm] electricity [from electric]

1. semi + circle 1. semicircle

1. il + legible 2. un + necessary 3. im + partial 4. in + offensive 5. im + mortal

6. mis + spell 7. dis + satisfy 8. dis + approve 9. mis + understand 10. over + rule

1. illegible 2. unnecessary 3. impartial 4. inoffensive 5. immortal

6. misspell 7. dissatisfy 8. disapprove 9. misunderstand 10. overrule

MECHANICS

EXAMPLES

16d. When adding the suffix –ness or –ly to a word, do not change the spelling of the word itself. EXAMPLES

sudden + ness = suddenness truthful + ly = truthfully

EXCEPTION

For most words that end in y, change the y to i before adding –ly or –ness. kindly + ness = kindliness

day + ly = daily

16e. Drop the final silent e before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. EXAMPLES

nice + est = nicest love + ing = loving

EXCEPTION

HELP Vowels are the letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. The other letters of the alphabet are consonants.

Keep the silent e in words ending in ce and ge before a suffix beginning with a or o. notice + able = noticeable courage + ous = courageous

Spelling Rules

351

FRANK & ERNEST reprinted by permission of Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc.

16f. Keep the final silent e before adding a suffix that begins with a consonant. EXAMPLES

care + less = careless plate + ful = plateful false + hood = falsehood

EXCEPTIONS

argue + ment = argument true + ly = truly

MECHANICS

Exercise 5

Spelling Words with Suffixes

Spell each of the following words, adding the given suffix. EXAMPLE

1. like + able 1. likable

1. awful + ly 2. care + ful 3. sincere + ly 4. write + ing 5. desire + able 6. change + able 7. cross + ing

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

advance + ment true + ly courage + ous notice + able brave + est accidental + ly pace + ing

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

value + able hope + ful grateful + ly pleasant + ness sore + est final + ly

16g. For words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i before any suffix that does not begin with i. EXAMPLES

EXCEPTIONS

beauty + ful = beautiful

mystery + ous = mysterious

carry + ing = carrying

envy + able = enviable

dry + ness = dryness

fry + er = fryer

Words ending in y preceded by a vowel do not change their spelling before a suffix. 352

Chapter 16

Spelling

EXAMPLES

EXCEPTIONS

key + ed = keyed

buy + er = buyer

pay + ment = payment

enjoy + ing = enjoying

lay + ed = laid

say + ed = said

16 f–h

day + ly = daily

16h. Double the final consonant before adding –ing, –ed, –er, or –est to a one-syllable word that ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. EXAMPLES

EXCEPTIONS

sit + ing = sitting

can + er = canner

hop + ed = hopped

flat + est = flattest

Do not double the final consonant in words ending in w or x. mow + ed = mowed

tax + ing = taxing

EXAMPLES

reap + ed = reaped

neat + est = neatest

cold + er = colder

hold + ing = holding

MECHANICS

For a one-syllable word ending in a single consonant that is not preceded by a single vowel, do not double the consonant before adding –ing, –ed, –er, or –est.

In words of more than one syllable, the final consonant is usually not doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel. EXAMPLES

final + ist = finalist

center + ed = centered

NOTE

In some cases, the final consonant may or may not be doubled.

EXAMPLES

cancel + ed = canceled or cancelled travel + er = traveler or traveller

Most dictionaries list both spellings for each word as correct. HELP

Exercise 6

Spelling Words with Suffixes

Spell each of the twenty words on the following page, adding the given suffix. EXAMPLE

1. beauty + ful 1. beautiful

When you are not sure about the spelling of a word, it is best to look it up in an up-to-date dictionary.

Spelling Rules

353

1. bay + ing 2. show + ed 3. drop + ed 4. deny + ing 5. pity + less 6. qualify + er 7. trip + ed

Review A

8. employ + ment 9. happy + est 10. hit + ing 11. swim + er 12. tidy + er 13. hurry + ed 14. tap + ing

15. clean + er 16. fold + ed 17. day + ly 18. bounty + ful 19. fix + ing 20. help + ful

Proofreading Sentences for Correct Spelling

Most of the following sentences contain a word that has been misspelled. Write each misspelled word correctly. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

MECHANICS

1. C 2. proceed 3. inexpensive 4. choosing

5. careful

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Chapter 16

Spelling

1. Have you seen the beautyful bonsai trees on display in the new garden center? 1. beautiful

1. These trees can live to be hundreds of years old, yet you can quickly create one of your own in an afternoon. 2. Simply use these pictures to help you as you procede through the following steps. 3. First, you will need an inxpensive plant (such as a juniper), some soil, some moss, and a shallow bowl. 4. When you are chooseing a plant, try to get one with a trunk that has some of its roots showing above the soil so that your tree will look old. 5. Make a carful study of your plant, and decide how you want the bonsai to look in the bowl.

6. Then, cut or pinch away undesireable branches and leaves until the plant looks like a tree. 7. After triming your plant, remove most of the large roots so that the plant can stand in the bowl. 8. Cover the remaining roots with soil, and if the weather is mild, put your bonsai in a shaded place outside. 9. You don’t have to water your plant dayly, but you should keep the soil moist. 10. After your plant has healed, you will have succeded in creating your very own bonsai.

6. undesirable

16 i

7. trimming 8. C 9. daily 10. succeeded

Forming the Plurals of Nouns 16i. Observe the following rules for spelling the plurals of nouns. (1) To form the plurals of most nouns, add –s. girl girls

breeze breezes

task tasks

oat oats

banana bananas

NOTE

Make sure that you do not confuse the plural form of a noun with its possessive form. Generally, you should not use an apostrophe to form the plural of a word. INCORRECT CORRECT CORRECT

The girl’s raced to the stadium for soccer practice. The girls raced to the stadium for soccer practice. [plural] The girls’ soccer team has practice today. [possessive]

Reference Note For a discussion of the possessive forms of nouns, see page 330. For information about using an apostrophe and an s to form the plural of a letter, a numeral, a symbol, or a word used as a word, see page 337.

(2) Form the plurals of nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh by adding –es. SINGULAR PLURAL

moss mosses

wax waxes

Sanchez birch Sanchezes birches

dish dishes

NOTE

Some one-syllable words ending in z double the final consonant when forming plurals. EXAMPLES

quiz quizzes

fez fezzes

Spelling Rules

355

MECHANICS

SINGULAR PLURAL

Creating the Plurals of Nouns

Oral Practice

Read each of the following nouns aloud. Then, say the plural form of the noun, and say whether the plural form has the –s or –es ending. EXAMPLE

1. match 1. matches

1. box es 2. crash es 3. sneeze s 4. address es 5. church es

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

tax es Gómez es ditch es miss es mask s

11. mix es 12. clip s 13. gym s 14. coach es 15. dash es

16. plate s 17. key s 18. pass es 19. Walsh es 20. business es

(3) Form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant by changing the y to i and adding –es. SINGULAR PLURAL

MECHANICS

EXCEPTION

lady ladies

hobby hobbies

county counties

strawberry strawberries

With proper nouns, simply add s. the Applebys

the Trilbys

(4) Form the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel by adding –s. SINGULAR PLURAL

HELP When you are not sure about how to spell the plural of a noun ending in f or fe, look up the word in a dictionary.

toy toys

journey journeys

highway highways

Wednesday Wednesdays

(5) Form the plurals of most nouns ending in f by adding –s. The plural form of some nouns ending in f or fe is formed by changing the f to v and adding –es. SINGULAR PLURAL

gulf gulfs

belief beliefs

knife knives

loaf loaves

wolf wolves

(6) Form the plurals of nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel by adding –s. SINGULAR PLURAL

video videos

ratio ratios

patio patios

Romeo Romeos

(7) The plural form of many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant is formed by adding –es. SINGULAR PLURAL EXCEPTION

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veto vetoes silo—silos

hero heroes

tomato tomatoes

potato potatoes

NOTE

With proper nouns, simply add –s.

EXAMPLES

the Satos

the Korolenkos

However, you should form the plural of most musical terms ending in o preceded by a consonant by adding –s. SINGULAR PLURAL

piano pianos

alto altos

solo solos

trio trios

NOTE

To form the plural of some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, you may add either –s or –es. SINGULAR PLURAL

banjo banjos or banjoes

mosquito mosquitos or mosquitoes

flamingo flamingos or flamingoes

(8) The plurals of some nouns are formed in irregular ways. SINGULAR PLURAL

man men

Exercise 7

mouse mice

foot feet

ox oxen

child children

Spelling the Plurals of Nouns

Spell the plural form of each of the following nouns. EXAMPLE

STYLE

TIP

When it refers to the computer device, the word mouse can form a plural in two ways: mouses or mice. Someday one form may be the preferred style. For now, either is correct.

1. industry 1. industries

1. turkey s 2. studio s 3. chief s 4. soprano s 5. puppy ies 6. self ves 7. chimney s

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

baby ies tomato es echo es ferry ies joy s life ves hero es

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

bluff s radio s lobby ies wife ves foot eet Whitby s

Spelling Rules

357

MECHANICS

The best way to determine the plural forms of words ending in o preceded by a consonant is to check their spellings in an up-todate dictionary.

Reference Note For more information on compound nouns, see page 25.

(9) For most compound nouns written as one word, form the plural by adding –s or –es. SINGULAR PLURAL

textbook textbooks

grandfather grandfathers

toothbrush toothbrushes

(10) For many compound nouns in which one word is modified by the other word or words, form the plural of the word modified. SINGULAR PLURAL

sister-in-law sisters-in-law

coat of arms coats of arms

editor in chief editors in chief

(11) Some nouns are the same in the singular and the plural. SINGULAR AND PLURAL

MECHANICS

STYLE

TIP

In your reading you may notice that some writers do not use apostrophes to form the plurals of numerals, letters, symbols, and words referred to as words. However, an apostrophe is not wrong, and it may be needed for clarity. Therefore, it is best to use the apostrophe.

moose Sioux

sheep Chinese

salmon spacecraft

(12) Form the plurals of numerals, letters, symbols, and words referred to as words by adding an apostrophe and s. SINGULAR PLURAL

1800 1800’s

Exercise 8

B B’s

i i ’s

& &’s

that that’s

Spelling the Plurals of Nouns

Spell the plural form of each of the following nouns. EXAMPLE

1. push-up 1. push-ups

1. side-wheeler 2. deer 3. mother-in-law 4. A 5. hello 6. thirteen-year-old 7. aircraft

8. governor-elect 9. 0 10. commander in chief 11. maid of honor 12. runner-up 13. spoonful 14. vice-president

15. x 16. lean-to 17. Swiss 18. $ 19. Japanese 20. M

Words Often Confused People often confuse the words in each of the following groups. Some of these words are homonyms—that is, their pronunciations are the same. However, these words have different meanings and spellings. Other words in the following groups have the same or similar spellings yet have different meanings.

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Spelling

[verb] to receive; to agree to The Lanfords would not accept our gift.

except

[preposition] with the exclusion of; but Everyone except Lauren agreed with Selena.

advice

[noun] a recommendation for action What is your mother’s advice?

advise

[verb] to recommend a course of action She advises me to take the job.

affect

[verb] to act upon; to change Does bad weather affect your health?

effect

[noun] result; consequence What effect does the weather have on your health?

already

[adverb] previously We have already studied the customs of the Navajo people.

all ready

[adjective] all prepared; in readiness The crew is all ready to set sail.

all right

[adjective] correct; satisfactory; safe; [adverb] adequately Jesse will be all right when his injury heals. We did all right, didn’t we?

Exercise 9

HELP All right is the only acceptable spelling. The spelling alright is not generally considered standard usage.

Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair in parentheses, choose the word or words that make the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. All of us (accept, except) Josh forgot our tickets. 1. except

1. By the time Melba arrived, Roscoe had (already, all ready) baked the sweet potatoes. 2. One duty of the cabinet is to (advice, advise) the president. 3. The soft music had a soothing (affect, effect) on the child. 4. The girls were (already, all ready) for the sleigh ride. 5. The (affect, effect) of Buddhism on Japanese culture was huge. 6. By this time of year, the snow has melted everywhere (accept, except) in the mountains. Words Often Confused

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MECHANICS

7. The doctor’s (advice, advise) was to drink plenty of fluids and get a lot of rest. 8. Sarita was happy to (accept, except) the invitation to the party. 9. Reading the newspaper usually (affects, effects) my ideas about current events. 10. Do you think it would be (alright, all right) to leave before the end of the movie? Reference Note

MECHANICS

In the Glossary of Usage (Chapter 12), you can find many other words that are often confused or misused. You can also look up such words in a dictionary.

altar

[noun] a table or stand at which religious rites are performed There was a bowl of flowers on the altar.

alter

[verb] to change Another hurricane may alter the shoreline near our town.

altogether

[adverb] entirely It is altogether too cold for swimming.

all together

[adjective] in the same place; [adverb] at the same time All together, the class looked bigger than it was. Sing all together now.

TIPS

TRICKS

Here is a sentence to help you remember the difference between capital and capitol: There is a dome on the capitol.

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brake

[noun] a device to stop a machine I used the emergency brake to prevent the car from rolling downhill.

break

[verb] to fracture; to shatter Don’t break that mirror!

capital

[noun] a city; the location of a government What is the capital of this state?

capitol

[noun] a building; statehouse The capitol is on Congress Avenue.

choose

[verb, rhymes with lose] to select We choose activities today in gym class.

chose

[verb, past tense of choose] We chose activities yesterday.

cloths

[noun] pieces of cloth I need some more cleaning cloths.

clothes

[noun] wearing apparel I decided to put on warm clothes.

Exercise 10 Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair in parentheses, choose the word or words that will make the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. If it rains, we will (altar, alter) our plans. 1. alter

coarse

[adjective] rough; crude; not fine The coarse sand acts as a filter.

course

[noun] path of action; series of studies; [also used in the expression of course] What is the best course for me to take?

MECHANICS

1. My summer (cloths, clothes) are loose and light. 2. In England, you can still see remains of (altars, alters) built by ancient peoples. 3. A bicyclist can wear out a set of (brakes, breaks) quickly. 4. You should use soft (cloths, clothes) to clean silver. 5. The cold weather did not (altar, alter) Ling’s plans for the Chinese New Year celebration. 6. Accra is the (capital, capitol ) of Ghana. 7. Keep the pieces of the vase (altogether, all together), and I will try to repair it. 8. Did he (choose, chose) a partner during class yesterday? 9. On the dome of the (capital, capitol) stands a large statue. 10. The audience was (altogether, all together) charmed by the mime’s performance.

You may change your mind, of course. complement

[verb] to make complete; [noun] something that completes The piano music complemented Ardene’s violin solo. Red shoes are a good complement to that outfit.

compliment

[verb] to praise someone; [noun] praise from someone Mrs. Katz complimented Jean on her persuasive speech. Thank you for the compliment. (continued)

Words Often Confused

361

(continued)

council

[noun] a group called together to accomplish a job The mayor’s council has seven members.

counsel

[noun] advice; [verb] to give advice He needs legal counsel on this matter.

MECHANICS

His attorney will counsel him before the hearing. councilor

[noun] a member of a council The mayor appointed seven councilors.

counselor

[noun] one who advises Mr. Jackson is the guidance counselor for the seventh grade.

desert

[noun, pronounced des’•ert] a dry, barren, sandy region; a wilderness This cactus grows only in the desert.

desert

[verb, pronounced de •sert’] to abandon; to leave A good sport does not desert his or her teammates.

dessert

[noun, pronounced de•sert’] a sweet, final course of a meal Let’s have fresh peaches for dessert.

Exercise 11

Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair in parentheses, choose the word that makes the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. At the end of dinner, we ate a (desert, dessert) made of fresh fruits and berries mixed with frozen yogurt. 1. dessert

1. The city (council, counsel) will not meet unless seven of the ten (councilors, counselors) are present. 2. The patient received (council, counsel) from the doctor on the best (coarse, course) to a speedy recovery. 3. Chutney and yogurt (complement, compliment) an Indian meal very well. 4. When we were staying in Cairo last year, we saw the Nile River, of (coarse, course). 362

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Spelling

formally

[adverb] with dignity; following strict rules or procedures We must behave formally at the reception.

formerly

[adverb] previously; at an earlier date Formerly, people thought travel to the moon was impossible.

hear

[verb] to receive sounds through the ears You can hear a whisper through these walls.

here

[adverb] in this place How long have you lived here?

its

[possessive form of the pronoun it] belonging to it That book has lost its cover.

it’s

[contraction of it is or it has] It’s [It is] the coldest winter I can remember.

MECHANICS

5. Edward is preparing the enchiladas, and I’m making empanadas for (desert, dessert) tonight. 6. Marilyn made a hand puppet out of (coarse, course) burlap, buttons, and felt. 7. We all know the major would not (desert, dessert) her regiment for any reason. 8. Please, I am asking for your (council, counsel), not your (complements, compliments). 9. My mother and father both took part in the (dessert, desert) hiking trip last week. 10. What did you think when our camp (councilor, counselor) (complemented, complimented ) us on our endurance?

It’s [It has] been a long time. lead

[verb, rhymes with feed] to go first; to be a leader Can she lead us out of this tunnel?

led

[verb, past tense of lead] went first Elizabeth Blackwell led the movement for hospital reform.

lead

[noun, rhymes with red] a heavy metal; graphite used in a pencil There is no longer any lead in lead pencils. (continued)

Words Often Confused

363

(continued)

loose

[adjective, rhymes with moose] not tight This belt is too loose.

lose

[verb, rhymes with the verb use] to suffer loss Fran will lose the race if she panics.

passed

[verb, past tense of pass] went by He passed us five minutes ago.

past

[noun] time that has gone by; [preposition] beyond; [adjective] ended Good historians make the past come alive. We rode past your house. That era is past.

Exercise 12 Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair in parentheses, choose the word that makes the sentence correct. MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

1. Kaya (lead, led) us to the ceremonial lodge. 1. led

1. The woman who (formally, formerly) (lead, led) the band now teaches music in Alaska. 2. We do not expect to (loose, lose) any of our backfield players this year. 3. We (passed, past) three stalled cars this morning on our way to school. 4. “Why did you (lead, led) us (hear, here)?” the bewildered tourist demanded. 5. Can you (hear, here) the difference between the CD and the digital audio tape? 6. The workers removed the (lead, led ) pipes from the old house and replaced them with copper ones. 7. Has the (loose, lose) bolt lost (its, it’s) washer and nut? 8. The guests are to dress ( formally, formerly) for the governor’s inauguration ball. 9. “I think (it’s, its) time for a pop spelling quiz,” announced Mrs. Ferrari. 10. Has the last school bus of the morning already gone (passed, past) our street, Tiffany?

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Spelling

peace

[noun] quiet order and security World peace is the goal of the United Nations.

piece

[noun] a part of something Lian bought that piece of silk in Hong Kong.

plain

[adjective] unadorned, simple, common; [noun] flat area of land Jeans were part of his plain appearance.

TIPS

TRICKS

Here is a way to remember the difference between peace and piece. You eat a piece of pie.

A broad, treeless plain stretched before them. plane

[noun] a flat surface; a tool; an airplane The movers pushed the couch up an inclined plane and into the truck. I have just used a carpenter’s plane. Have you ever flown in a plane? [noun] the head of a school; [adjective] chief, main Our principal spoke of his principal duties. I outlined the principal ideas.

principle

[noun] a rule of conduct; a fundamental truth Action should be guided by principles.

quiet

[adjective] still and peaceful; without noise The forest was very quiet.

quite

[adverb] wholly or entirely; to a great extent Some students are already quite sure of their career plans.

shone

[verb, past tense of shine] gleamed; glowed The moon shone softly over the grass in the silent meadow.

shown

[verb, past participle of show] revealed; demonstrated Tamisha has shown me how to crochet.

TIPS

TRICKS

To remember the spelling of principal, use this sentence: The principal is your pal.

MECHANICS

principal

N O T E Shine can mean “to direct the light of” or “to polish,” but the

preferred past tense form for these meanings is shined, not shone. EXAMPLES

The firefighters shined a light into the attic. Elton shined his shoes before the dance.

Words Often Confused

365

Exercise 13 Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair in parentheses, choose the word that will make the sentence correct.

MECHANICS

EXAMPLE

1. Mr. Ramírez used a (plain, plane) to smooth the board. 1. plane

1. Each drop of water (shone, shown) like crystal. 2. Motor vehicles are one of the (principal, principle) sources of air pollution in our cities. 3. If you don’t hurry, you will miss your (plain, plane). 4. The (principals, principles) of justice and trust can lead to world (peace, piece). 5. Jan has (shone, shown) me how to change a tire. 6. It is clear that Luisa is acting on (principal, principle), not from a personal motive. 7. On Christmas Eve we each have a (peace, piece) of fruitcake. 8. “The bake sale was (quiet, quite) successful,” said Gloria. 9. “For once,” the (principal, principle) announced with a smile, “you do not have to be (quiet, quite).” 10. (Plain, Plane) fruits and vegetables can be delicious. Review B

HELP Some sentences in Review B contain more than one spelling error.

Proofreading for Words Often Confused

Identify the incorrect words in the following sentences. Then, give the correct spelling of each word. EXAMPLE

1. Portraits of people do not have to be plane. 1. plane—plain

1. Some portraits have a striking affect. 1. effect 2. A vivid portrait can often make people from the passed seem alive. 2. past 3. The painting on the left is by Rembrandt, one of the principle painters of the seventeenth century. 3. principal 4. The portrait, probably of a rabbi in the city of Amsterdam, is quiet lovely. 4. quite 5. It’s detail shows why Rembrandt was such a popular portrait artist. 5. Its 6. principles 6. The painting illustrates one of Rembrandt’s main artistic principals, the strong contrast between light and dark. 7. Light has shown only on the rabbi’s face, hands, and a peace of his clothing. 7. shone/piece 366

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Spelling

8. The rest of the painting is quiet dark, highlighting these lighted features. 8. quite 9. shown, peace, quiet 9. The rabbi is shone in a state of piece, and the lack of detail in the painting gives an impression of quite elegance. 10. Rembrandt is excepted as a great artist because of his ability to give life to paintings of the human form. 10. accepted [adjective] in a fixed position Is that chalkboard stationary?

stationery

[noun] writing paper Do you have any white stationery?

than

[conjunction used in comparisons] Alaska is bigger than Texas.

then

[adverb] at that time If we meet, we can talk about it then.

their

[possessive form of the pronoun they] belonging to them Can you understand their message?

there

[adverb] at or to that place; [also used to begin a sentence] Let’s meet there.

TIPS

TRICKS

Here is an easy way to remember the difference between stationary and stationery: You write a letter on stationery.

MECHANICS

stationary

There are toys hidden inside the piñata. they’re

[contraction of they are] They’re all from Guam.

threw

[verb, past tense of throw] hurled; tossed Ted threw me the mitt.

through

[preposition] in one side and out the opposite side I can’t see through the lens.

Exercise 14 Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair or group in parentheses, choose the word that makes the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. (Their, They’re, There) first rehearsal is after school. 1. Their

1. The stars appear to be (stationary, stationery), but we know that (their, there, they’re) moving at very high speeds. 2. Thailand is much larger (than, then) South Korea. Words Often Confused

367

MECHANICS

3. That noise is from a jet plane going (threw, through) the sound barrier. 4. The pitcher (threw, through) a curveball. 5. A (stationary, stationery) store usually sells paper, pencils, and other writing supplies. 6. We started our trip in Barcelona and (than, then) traveled west to Madrid. 7. The girls completed (their, there, they’re) displays for the science fair. 8. Is a moving target much harder to hit (than, then) a (stationary, stationery) one? 9. Each time Chris got a free throw, he lobbed the ball neatly (threw, through) the net to score one point. 10. The children in the back seat kept asking, “When will we get (their, they’re, there)?” to

[preposition] in the direction of; toward [also used before the base form of a verb] We are going to Mexico to visit Gabriel.

too

[adverb] also; more than enough Audrey is going, too. Kazuo used too much miso, so the soup was salty.

two

[adjective or noun] one plus one We bought two sets of chopsticks before we left the restaurant.

waist

[noun] the midsection of the body The anchor of the tug-of-war team wrapped the rope around her waist.

waste

[verb] to use foolishly; [noun] a needless expense Try not to waste all your film now. Rodney did not agree that golf is a waste of time.

weak

[adjective] feeble; not strong Melinda’s illness has left her very weak.

week

[noun] seven days We’ll wait for at least a week. (continued)

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Spelling

(continued)

weather whether

[conjunction] if We do not know whether we should expect rain. [contraction of who is or who has] Who’s [Who is] going to the museum? “Who’s [Who has] been eating my porridge?” asked Papa Bear.

whose

[possessive form of the pronoun who] belonging to whom Whose report was the most original?

your

[possessive form of the pronoun you] belonging to you What is your middle name?

you’re

MEETING THE CHALLENGE A mnemonic is a device, often a rhyme or visual aid, used as an aid to remembering. The Tips and Tricks features on pages 360, 365, and 367 contain mnemonic devices. Create three mnemonic devices of your own for any of the Words Often Confused that do not already have mnemonics.

ANSWER Mnemonics will vary.

[contraction of you are] You’re my best friend.

MECHANICS

who’s

[noun] the condition of the atmosphere The weather seems to be changing.

Exercise 15 Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair or group in parentheses, choose the word that makes the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. What are (your, you’re) plans for celebrating Juneteenth? 1. your

1. (Who’s, Whose) the present secretary of state of the United States, Elaine? 2. My stepsister and I built (to, too, two) snow forts on our front lawn yesterday. 3. “(Your, You’re) late,” my friend complained. 4. Would you be able to stand the (weather, whether) in Alaska? 5. That sounds like a (weak, week) excuse to me. 6. (Your, You’re) dog is (to, too, two) sleepy to learn any new tricks today. 7. “(Who’s, Whose) boots are these?” Mrs. Allen asked. 8. The pilot must decide very quickly (weather, whether) she should parachute to safety or try to land the crippled plane. Words Often Confused

369

9. An obi is a sash that is worn around the (waist, waste). 10. My family is going (to, too, two) New Orleans. Review C

Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair or group in parentheses, choose the word that makes the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

My parents asked my [1] (advice, advise) about where we should spend our vacation. 1. advice

MECHANICS

My family could not decide [1] (weather, whether) to visit Boston or Philadelphia. Finally, we all agreed on Boston, the [2] (capital, capitol ) of Massachusetts. We drove [3] (to, too, two) the city one week later. Even my parents could not conceal [4] (their, there, they’re) excitement. We did not [5] (loose, lose) a moment. Boston [6] (formally, formerly) was “the hub of the universe,” and we discovered that [7] (it’s, its) still a truly fascinating city. Everyone in my family [8] (accept, except) me had eaten lobster, and I ate it for the first time there in Boston. I was not [9] (altogether, all together) certain how to eat the lobster, but my doubt did not [10] (affect, effect) my appetite. My parents insisted that pear yogurt was a strange [11] (desert, dessert) to follow lobster, but I would not [12] (altar, alter) my order. After the pear yogurt, I thought about ordering a small [13] (peace, piece) of pie, but I decided to keep [14] (quiet, quite). While in Boston, we walked up and down the streets just to [15] (hear, here) the Bostonians’ accents. [16] (Their, There, They’re) especially noted for [17] (their, there, they’re) pronunciation of a’s and r’s. We had been in Boston for only a week or so when the [18] (weather, whether) bureau predicted a big snowstorm for the area. Since we had not taken the proper [19] (cloths, clothes) for snow, we decided to return home. On the way back, we were [20] (already, all ready) making plans for another visit to Boston.

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C CH HA AP PT TE ER R

Chapter Review

1. chief [16a] 2. supersede [16b] 3. unnecessary [16c] 4. happily [16g] 5. keyed [16g] 6. dripped [16h] 7. foxes [16i(2)] 8. mixes [16i(2)] 9. knives [16i(5)] 10. fathers-in-law [16i(10)] 11. fierce [16a] 12. mower [16h] 13. argument [16f] 14. tries [16g] 15. noticeable [16e] 16. easier [16g] 17. halves [16i(5)] 18. hitting [16h] 19. changeable [16e] 20. illegible [16c] 21. [16i(2)] 22. [16i(5)] 23. [16i(11)] 24. [16i(8)] 25. [16i(4)] 26. [16i(10)] 27. [16i(11)] 28. [16i(12)] 29. [16i(3)] 30. [16i(7)]

1. height, weight, cheif 2. succeed, supercede, proceed 3. unecessary, unavailable, unusual 4. happyly, finally, truly 5. said, paid, keyd 6. cleaner, tapping, driped 7. taxes, buzzes, foxs 8. switches, mixs, keys 9. knifes, tomatoes, solos 10. mothers-in-law, father-in-laws, drive-ins 11. achieve, feirce, friend 12. mowwer, followed, staying 13. acquire, arguement, always 14. tired, trys, guesses 15. noticable, yield, daily 16. staying, priceless, easyer 17. halfs, coughs, princesses 18. heating, hiting, trying 19. changable, drinkable, smiling 20. misspell, ilegible, unnoticed

MECHANICS

Numerals and terms in brackets refer to rules and concepts tested by the items in the Chapter Review.

A. Identifying Misspelled Words Identify the misspelled word in each of the following groups of words. Then, write the correct spelling of the word.

B. Writing the Correct Plural Form Write the correct plural form of each of the following words. 21. boss es 25. freeway s 22. thief ves 26. ten-year-old s 23. sheep [no change] 27. Vietnamese [no change] 24. woman en

28. 3 ‘s 29. city ies 30. soprano s

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C. Choosing Between Words Often Confused In each of the following sentences, choose the correct word from the pair in parentheses.

MECHANICS

31.–50. [Words Often Confused]

31. Have you (already, all ready) adopted a kitten from the

animal shelter? 32. Although it’s only July, the store already has a display of winter (cloths, clothes). 33. “I believe that both candidates for senator have very high (principals, principles),” my aunt said. 34. The sophomore (councilor, counselor) is working on next year’s class schedules. 35. The moon is (quiet, quite) bright this evening. 36. Not getting enough exercise can (effect, affect) your health. 37. You must (formally, formerly) declare your interest in joining the club by filling out the membership card. 38. My (advise, advice) is that you buy a mountain bike. 39. (Its, It’s) hard to believe that the leatherback turtle can grow to be seven feet long! 40. The fabric on the couch in Dr. Alexander’s waiting room is (course, coarse) and scratchy. D. Identifying Misused Words In many of the following sentences, one word has been misused because it has been confused for another word. Write each incorrectly used word. Then, write the word that should have been used. If a sentence is already correct, write C.

41. alter 42. dessert 43. C 44. here 45. passed 46. C 47. than 48. weather 49. Who’s 50. accept

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41. An editor will altar this manuscript. 42. We had fruit and sherbet for desert. 43. I thanked Mr. Chu for the compliment. 44. While you are hear, use this towel. 45. Eventually, winter past and spring arrived. 46. Maria received a box of stationery for her birthday. 47. The blue chair is more comfortable then the green one. 48. The whether report comes on right after the news. 49. Whose the man speaking to Officer Grant? 50. The town voted to except the gift of a new library wing.

Writing Application Using Correct Spelling in a Review Spelling Words Correctly Write a one- or two-paragraph review of your favorite book or movie. Be sure to use at least five of the words listed as Words Often Confused in this chapter. Prewriting Pick a favorite book or movie and make a list of the reasons that you prefer it over other books or movies. If you decide to write about a book, for example, you may want to compare it to a film that is based on that book. Writing As you write your first draft, be sure to include information about the book or film, such as who wrote it, who directed it, and who stars in it. Remember to use a dictionary to help with correct spelling.

MECHANICS

Revising Evaluate your draft and revise it to improve its content, organization, and style. Add sensory details that make the story come alive for the reader. Replace clichés and worn-out verbs and nouns with fresher, more precise words. Publishing Check your paragraph for spelling mistakes. Use a computer spellchecker if one is available, but remember that spellcheckers will not recognize misused words (for example, piece for peace). Also, pay attention to the spelling of any words in languages other than English, and consult a dictionary if you have any doubt. Exchange your report with a partner, and check each other’s spelling. You and your classmates may want to gather the class’s reviews and create a bulletin board display of favorite books and movies.

Chapter Review

373

Spelling Words 1

• offshore

strawberry daylight seaweed wildlife grandparents moonlight chairperson killer whale watermelon headache typewrite

MECHANICS

alligator corral vanilla mosquito stampede guitar coyote jaguar chili

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• machinery discovery nursery dictionary

• barrier

corridor umbrella buffalo gorilla pinnacle syllable tobacco massacre opossum moccasins cinnamon

• muscular

triangle muscle circular regulation particles particular rectangle vehicles rectangular triangular vehicular

• temperature strength length vegetable arctic twelfth probably jewelry literature boundary reference beverage

• selfish

marine greenish awkward wholesome grayish childish masculine feminine reddish genuine awesome

• Spanish

Greek England African French Spain Vietnam

• arrange

accommodate announced approaching accepted appoint accompanying array arrangements accomplish accelerate annoy

• defeat

destroyed decline defects disabled disappeared disappointment dependent deduction disadvantages disguised dissolved

• cafeteria

• express

envelope extend excitement exceed explode enthusiasm enclose expand exclaim exclude excel

century injury missionary territory scenery revolutionary treasury luxury

Australia Japanese Greece Australian Vietnamese

• classical

conductor concert instrument clarinet banjo bugle harmony pianist performance violin rehearsal

• gathered

hammered controlling bothering ruined listening studying swallowed permitting carrying compelled groaned

• shoot

mist birth swayed shown tied pane shone reel berth chute suede

cocoa tortillas

• doubtful

specialist misfortune fortunate unfortunate especially specific specifications judicial judgment prejudice undoubtedly

• organize

• depositing

• existence

• transmission

contracted commitment attract submit references offered omit admits distract subtraction refer

• fantasy

• hasten

• diameter

graph meters astronomer barometer biography astronaut kilometers astronomy photography centimeters autograph

• trio

• desperate

• caravan

monopoly quartet tricycle decade octopus decimal quarters triangles binoculars triple monotonous

luncheon champion gymnasium laboratory mathematics parachute submarine teenagers memorandum limousine examination

• agricultural

identification encyclopedia possibility exceptionally responsibilities characteristic recommendation rehabilitation acceleration simultaneously accumulation

lightning adjective penetrate aspirin athletes identity disastrous ecstatic platinum incidentally tentatively

autumn autumnal softly heritage designated designed reception signature haste sign resign

incident frequent endurance balance intelligent influence reluctant magnificent experience confidence elegant

fantastic company companion editor editorial colony colonial strategy strategic diplomacy diplomatic

recess televised revised position constructing composition opposite structures destruction vision necessary

• portrait

buffet ballet bouquet dialogue antique unique vague fatigue technique plaque camouflage

cooperate congratulate exercise calculate illustrate recognize compromise memorize paralyze criticize inaugurate

• inspired

convention formula adventure depends uniform inventor pending invention transformed perform suspended

MECHANICS

• civilian

historian guardian scientist biologist volunteer musician engineer physician technician politician psychiatrist

• logic

biology monologue hydrant technology analogy mythology apologizing periscope telescope dehydrated psychology Spelling Words

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Key Language Skills Review This chapter reviews key skills and concepts that pose special problems for writers. • Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences • Subject-Verb and Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement • Verb Forms and Pronoun Forms • Comparison of Modifiers • Misplaced Modifiers • Standard Usage • Capitalization • Punctuation—End Marks, Commas, Semicolons, Colons, Quotation Marks, and Apostrophes • Spelling Most of the exercises in this chapter follow the same format as the exercises found throughout the grammar, usage, and mechanics sections of this book. You will notice, however, that two sets of review exercises are presented in standardized test formats. These exercises are designed to provide you with practice not only in solving usage and mechanics problems but also in dealing with these kinds of problems on standardized tests. 376

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Exercise 1

Finding and Revising Sentence Fragments

Most of the following groups of words are sentence fragments. Revise each fragment by (1) adding a subject, (2) adding a verb, or (3) attaching the fragment to a complete sentence. You may need to change the punctuation and capitalization, too. If the word group is already a complete sentence, write S. EXAMPLE

Reference Note For information about correcting sentence fragments, see page 414.

1. Because she likes Chihuahuas.

1. My mother bought a book about dogs because she likes Chihuahuas.

Exercise 2

Revising Sentence Fragments

Identify each of the following groups of words as a sentence fragment or a complete sentence. Write F if it is a sentence fragment and S if it is a sentence. Then, revise each sentence fragment by (1) adding a subject, (2) adding a verb, or (3) attaching the fragment to a complete sentence. You may need to change the punctuation and capitalization, too. EXAMPLE

Reference Note For information about correcting sentence fragments, see page 414.

1. Juggling a fascinating hobby.

1. F—Juggling is a fascinating hobby.

1. If you would like to be able to juggle. 1. F 2. You might start with a good, simple how-to book. 3. Most people can learn the basic moves. 3. S 4. Within a fairly short period of time. 4. F

2. S

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377

COMMON ERRORS

1. Wanted to study the history of Chihuahuas. 2. Small dogs with big, pointed ears. 3. When my mother’s Chihuahuas begin their shrill, highpitched barking. 4. Chihuahuas lived in ancient Mexico. 5. Ancient stone carvings showing that the Toltecs raised Chihuahuas during the eighth or ninth century A.D. 6. Are related to dogs of the Middle East. 7. Travelers may have brought Chihuahuas to the Americas as companions. 8. That Chihuahuas score poorly on canine intelligence tests. 9. However, can be trained to assist people who have hearing impairments. 10. If you want a Chihuahua.

5. While beginners first develop a sense of how to hold one juggling bag. 5. F 6. They also practice standing in the proper, relaxed way. 6. S 7. Next, must master the ability to toss one bag back and forth. 7. F 8. Then learning the right way to throw two bags. 8. F 9. Beginners often need to practice juggling with two bags for some time. 9. S 10. Before they move up to three bags. 10. F Exercise 3 Reference Note For information about correcting sentence fragments, see page 414.

Some of the following groups of words are sentence fragments. Revise each sentence fragment by (1) adding a subject, (2) adding a verb, or (3) attaching the sentence fragment to a complete sentence. You may need to change the punctuation and capitalization, too. If the word group is already a complete sentence, write S. EXAMPLE

HELP

Finding and Revising Sentence Fragments

1. Could have been the source of the world’s legends of

dragons. 1. Could dinosaur fossils have been the source of the world’s legends of dragons? or Large lizards, such as monitors, could have been the source of the world’s legends of dragons.

Although the example for Exercise 3 shows two possible answers, you need to give only one for each item.

COMMON ERRORS

1. Eventually, taking root in the imaginations of many people. 2. Considering this. 3. The word dinosaur was first used around one hundred and fifty years ago. 4. That fact surprises many people. 5. Where the first dinosaur eggs were found. 6. For example, magnificent, full skeletons in museums, lifelike animations, television documentaries, and even children’s toys and cartoons. 7. Can explain the sudden disappearance of these mighty creatures. 8. The remarkable work of physicists Dr. Luis Alvarez and his son Walter on this mystery. 9. Their theory based on the idea of a meteor hitting the earth. 10. Sending a huge, dark cloud around the earth, killing many plants and destroying the dinosaurs’ food sources.

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Exercise 4

Revising Run-on Sentences

Each of the following items is a run-on sentence. Revise each sentence by following the italicized instructions in parentheses. Remember to use correct punctuation and capitalization. EXAMPLE

1. The study of shells is called malacology, shell collec-

Reference Note For information about correcting run-on sentences, see page 416.

tions are particularly popular in Japan. (Make two sentences.) 1. The study of shells is called malacology. Shell collections are particularly popular in Japan.

COMMON ERRORS

1. At four feet in diameter, the shell of the giant clam is the largest shell today during prehistoric times, the shell of the Nautiloidea sometimes grew to eight feet across. (Make two sentences.) 2. From the Mediterranean to Japan, shells have played an important part in everyday life they have functioned as money, as decoration, and even as magic charms. (Make two sentences.) 3. American Indians used wampum, beads cut from shells, as money West Africans and Arabs used the cowrie shell in the same way. (Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.) 4. Africans prized the shell as jewelry shells are still sold as jewelry. (Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.) 5. Jewelry, buttons, figurines, and all kinds of decorative objects can be purchased at tourist shops along the coasts, shells are plentiful nearby. (Make two sentences.) 6. The ancient Greeks boiled mollusks and created a valuable purple dye cloth treated with this dye may retain its color for hundreds of years. (Make two sentences.) 7. Perhaps because of their great beauty, shells have also played important parts in religious life they may be found in several belief systems. (Make two sentences.) 8. Quetzalcoatl, god of the Mayans, Toltecs, and Aztecs, was born from a seashell the chank shell is associated with the Hindu god Vishnu. (Make two sentences.) 9. Shells can be free for the taking their rarity can make them quite valuable. (Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.) 10. Shells are regularly exported from the United States to Europe, Japan and the United States also ship shells to each other. (Make two sentences.)

Grammar and Usage

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Exercise 5 Reference Note For information about correcting run-on sentences, see page 416.

Correcting Run-on Sentences

Correct each of the following run-on sentences by (1) making it into two separate sentences or (2) using a comma and a coordinating conjunction to make a compound sentence. Remember to use correct punctuation and capitalization. EXAMPLE

1. Anthony uses chopsticks skillfully I have trouble with

COMMON ERRORS

them. 1. Anthony uses chopsticks skillfully, but I have trouble with them.

1. The large crane lifted the ten-ton boxes, it set them on the concrete deck. 2. My dad does not know much about computers he has learned to surf the Internet. 3. Allen Say wrote The Ink-Keeper’s Apprentice the events in the story are based on his boyhood in Japan. 4. Two robins landed on the ice in the birdbath one of them drank water from around the thawed edges. 5. Egyptian hieroglyphics may be written from left to right or from right to left, they may be written from top to bottom. 6. John is my youngest brother Levy is my oldest brother. 7. The nature preserve was beautiful some people had littered. 8. Grandma believes in keeping a positive attitude, she says that thinking positively is the key to a happy life. 9. Let’s see that new movie from Korea I have never seen a Korean movie. 10. All my friends like to shop for bargains at the downtown mall, I do, too.

Exercise 6 Reference Note For information about correcting run-on sentences, see page 416.

Revising Run-on Sentences

Revise each of the following run-on sentences by (1) making it into two separate sentences or (2) using a comma and a coordinating conjunction to make a compound sentence. Remember to use correct punctuation and capitalization. EXAMPLE

1. James Earl Jones is a famous actor he has been in

movies and plays. 1. James Earl Jones is a famous actor. He has been in movies and plays.

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Exercise 7

Revising Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences

Identify each of the following word groups by writing F if it is a sentence fragment, R if it is a run-on sentence, and S if it is a complete sentence. Revise each fragment to make it into a complete sentence. Revise each run-on to make it into one or more complete sentences. Remember to use correct capitalization and punctuation. EXAMPLE

9. , and

1. Because my ancestors were Scandinavian.

Reference Note For information on correcting sentence fragments, see page 414. For information about correcting run-on sentences, see page 416.

1. F—I have heard many stories about Vikings because my ancestors were Scandinavian.

1. The Viking Age lasted three centuries, it started at the end of the eighth century A.D. 1. R Grammar and Usage

381

COMMON ERRORS

1. You may not remember seeing James Earl Jones, you would probably recognize his voice. 1. but 2. Jones provided the voice of Darth Vader in the Star Wars movies, Jones’s deep voice helped make the character forceful and frightening. 3. Jones has a distinctive voice he has even won a medal for his vocal delivery. 3. , and 4. The prize was given by the American Academy of Arts and Letters, is that the organization that gives the Academy Awards? 5. Jones’s autobiography was published in 1993 it is, quite appropriately, titled Voices and Silences. 6. Jones was born in Mississippi in 1931, he was raised by his grandparents on a farm in Michigan. 6. and 7. His father was a prizefighter and an actor. Jones decided to be an actor, too, and studied in New York City. 8. He portrayed a boxing champion in The Great White Hope, he starred in both the Broadway production and the movie version of the play. 9. Jones won a Tony Award for his Broadway performance he was nominated for an Academy Award for his role in the movie. 10. Another of Jones’s movies is The Man, in that movie he plays the first African American to be elected president of the United States.

2. Vikings from Scandinavian countries known today as Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. 2. F 3. Since the Vikings lived along the sea, they often became boatbuilders, sailors, and explorers. 3. S 4. The range of influence of the Vikings was enormous the Vikings developed trade routes in western Europe and also in the Middle East. 4. R 5. Also were skilled at fishing and farming. 5. F 6. All Vikings spoke the language called Old Norse they shared similar religious beliefs. 6. R 7. Odin was the chief god of the Vikings, Odin’s son Thor was worshiped more widely. 7. R 8. After they were converted to Christianity, the Vikings built many wooden churches. 8. S 9. Was divided into three main social classes—royal families, free citizens, and slaves. 9. F 10. Viking women held several important rights, they could own property and land, for example. 10. R

Exercise 8 Reference Note For information about subject-verb agreement, see page 148.

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

For each of the following sentences, choose the form of the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject. EXAMPLE

1. The band (play, plays) mostly reggae.

COMMON ERRORS

1. plays

1. Samantha and Matthew (take, takes) art classes at the museum on weekends. 2. The card table or the folding chairs (belong, belongs) in that closet by the front door. 3. Earlene (don’t, doesn’t) know the exact time because her watch stopped working last week. 4. Both the stalagmites and the stalactites (was, were) casting eerie shadows on the cave walls. 5. Several of the exchange students at our school (speak, speaks) Portuguese. 6. Neither an emu nor an ostrich (lay, lays) eggs that look like that.

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7. The members of the audience always (clap, claps) as soon as the star appears onstage. 8. Mike said that either the main herd or the stragglers (is, are) in the near canyon. 9. The coaches on the visiting team (agree, agrees) with the referee’s decision. 10. Some of the fruit baskets (sell, sells) for less than three and a half dollars each.

Exercise 9

Identifying Verbs That Agree in Number with Their Subjects

For each of the following sentences, choose the form of the verb in parentheses that agrees with the subject. EXAMPLE

1. (Do, Does) you know what a powwow is?

Reference Note For information about subject-verb agreement, see page 148.

1. Do

COMMON ERRORS

1. Each of us in my class (has, have) given a report about powwows, which are ceremonies or gatherings of American Indians. 2. Dancing and feasting (is, are) very important activities at powwows. 3. People in my family (come, comes) from around the country to attend the Crow Fair, which is held every August in Montana. 4. Many of the people at the powwow (has, have) come here from Canada. 5. Everyone here (know, knows) that it is the largest powwow in North America. 6. Peoples represented at the fair (include, includes) the Crow, Lakota, Ojibwa, Blackfoot, and Cheyenne. 7. Only one of my relatives (dance, dances) all four of the main kinds of dances at powwows. 8. Both skill and practice (go, goes) into the Traditional, Fancy, Grass, and Jingle-dress dances. 9. Last year, all of the costumes of the Fancy dancers (was, were) extremely colorful. 10. Either a row of porcupine quills or a band of beads (go, goes) all the way around some of the dancers’ headdresses.

Grammar and Usage

383

Exercise 10 Correcting Errors in Subject-Verb

Agreement Reference Note For information about subject-verb agreement, see page 148.

Most of the following sentences contain errors in subject-verb agreement. Identify each error, and give the correct form of the verb. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. All of us is very excited about our Drama Club’s

next play. 1. is—are

COMMON ERRORS

1. Six Friends and One Dog are the title of the play we are performing this fall. 1. is 2. The director and producer of the play are Mark Taylor. 2. is 3. Neither our sponsor nor the actors have ever staged a production like this. 3. C 4. Most of the actors was chosen last week. 4. were 5. Of course, the cast don’t know their lines yet. 5. C 6. Many of the costumes is still being made. 6. are 7. Either Lauren or Kawanda’s older brother is painting the backdrops. 7. C 8. Are five dollars too much for a ticket? 8. Is 9. My friends and the crew hopes not, because the tickets are already printed! 9. hope 10. Channel 6 News have promised to cover our opening night, so we’ll all be famous, at least for a little while. 10. has

Exercise 11 Reference Note For information about pronoun-antecedent agreement, see page 165.

Choosing Pronouns That Agree with Their Antecedents

Choose the correct pronoun or pronouns in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Tell anyone with an idea to take (their, his or her)

suggestion to the vice-principal. 1. his or her

1. Everyone on the field trip must bring (their, his or her) own sack lunch. 2. When my sister or mother comes back from the bakery, (they, she) will bring fresh-baked bread. 3. No, neither of the cowboys ever takes off (their, his) hat. 4. The United States was proud when (its, their) astronauts landed on the moon. 384

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5. If Doug or Simon is in the clear downfield, pass (them, him) the ball. 6. Usually Rosita or Paula plays (her, their) guitar at our picnics. 7. If anybody is still in the gym, tell (them, him or her) to turn out the lights and shut the door. 8. The colonists and Governor William Bradford depended on Squanto as (his or her, their) interpreter. 9. This is a large company, but (they, it) treats the employees with respect. 10. Ask Jennie or Sara what (her, their) middle name is. Exercise 12 Proofreading Sentences for Correct

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Most of the following sentences contain errors in pronounantecedent agreement. Identify each error, and give the correct form of the pronoun. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Jesse and Michael enjoyed his Kwanzaa activities.

Reference Note For information about pronoun-antecedent agreement, see page 165.

1. his—their

COMMON ERRORS

1. During Kwanzaa, which lasts from December 26 through January 1, several of our friends and neighbors celebrate his or her African heritage. 1. their 2. African American families affirm traditional values and principles during their Kwanzaa activities. 2. C 3. This year, both of my sisters made storybooks as her zawadi, or Kwanzaa gifts. 3. their 4. Either Uncle Willis or Uncle Roland will bring their candles for the observance. 4. his 5. One of them will bring their wooden candleholder, called a kinara. 5. his 6. The joyful celebration of Kwanzaa has its origins in African harvest festivals. 6. C 7. Each of my parents will discuss his or her own individual ideas about Kwanzaa. 7. C 8. Either Lily or Charlotte mentioned in their speech that Kwanzaa was created in 1966. 8. her 9. Nobody in our family likes to miss their turn to make up dances on the sixth day of Kwanzaa. 9. his or her 10. Jerry and Charles will volunteer his time on the third day of Kwanzaa, when collective work is celebrated. 10. their Grammar and Usage

385

Exercise 13 Proofreading Sentences for Correct

Reference Note For information about subject-verb agreement, see page 148. For information about pronounantecedent agreement, see page 165.

Subject-Verb and Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Most of the following sentences contain agreement errors. For each error, identify the incorrect verb or pronoun and supply the correct form. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Every animal, including humans, need water to

COMMON ERRORS

survive. 1. need—needs

1. The human body consist mostly of water. 1. consists 2. You and I, along with everyone else, is about 65 percent water. 2. are 3. Everybody in my family tries to drink at least eight glasses of water a day. 3. C 4. Doesn’t 4. “Don’t Carlos usually drink more than that?” Janet asked. 5. Either Angie or Ramona said that their family usually drinks bottled water. 5. her 6. Evidence shows that drinking water helps our bodies keep its proper temperature. 6. their 7. Ian or Calinda have studied the mineral content of our local water supply. 7. has 8. Industry and agriculture depend on a good water supply for its success. 8. their 9. Most of the world’s fresh water is frozen in polar icecaps and glaciers. 9. C 10. While more than 70 percent of the earth’s surface are covered by water, only 3 percent of that water is not salty. 10. is

Exercise 14 Writing the Forms of Regular and

Irregular Verbs Reference Note For information about using verbs correctly, see Chapter 9.

Provide the correct present participle, past, or past participle form of the given verb to complete each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. eat

Angela has already acorn squash.

her serving of

1. eaten

1. install The shopping mall has wheelchair ramps at all of the entrances. 1. installed 386

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2. send

We have already for a new crossword-puzzle magazine. 2. sent 3. see Have you the koalas at the Australian wildlife exhibit? 3. seen 4. put Marianna is together a colorful mobile. 4. putting 5. grow My uncle the largest pumpkin in the United States this year. 5. grew 6. draw Anthony has two different self-portraits. 6. drawn 7. run Both of my stepbrothers have in the Cowtown Marathon. 7. run 8. jump Have the cats out of the tree? 8. jumped 9. write Murasaki Shikibu of Japan what may be the world’s first novel. 9. wrote 10. go More than half of my friends to the May Day parade. 10. went

Exercise 15 Proofreading Sentences for Correct

Verb Forms

Identify any incorrect past or past participle verb forms in the following sentences, and write the correct forms. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Many African American women maked names for

Reference Note For information about using verbs correctly, see Chapter 9.

themselves during the pioneer days. 1. made

COMMON ERRORS

1. A friend of mine lended me a book called Black Women of the Old West. 1. lent 2. It contains many biographies of African American women who leaded difficult but exciting lives. 2. led 3. For example, May B. Mason gone to the Yukon to mine gold during the Klondike Gold Rush. 3. went 4. Journalist Era Bell Thompson writed articles about the West for a Chicago newspaper. 4. wrote 5. In American Daughter she telled about her youth in North Dakota. 5. told 6. Our teacher has spoke highly of Dr. Susan McKinney Stewart, a pioneer physician. 6. spoken 7. C 7. During the 1800s, Cathy Williams wore men’s clothes and served under the name William Cathay as a Buffalo Soldier. 8. I seen a picture of Williams at work on her farm. 8. saw Grammar and Usage

387

9. Mary Fields choosed an exciting but sometimes hard life in the West. 9. chose 10. Nicknamed “Stagecoach Mary,” she drived freight wagons and stagecoaches in Montana. 10. drove Exercise 16 Proofreading Sentences for Correct

Verb Forms Reference Note For information about using verbs correctly, see Chapter 9.

For each of the following sentences that contains an incorrect past or past participle form of a verb, write the correct form. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. When I was ten, I begun to collect stamps.

COMMON ERRORS

1. began

1. Over the years, my collection has growed large enough to fill three binders. 1. grown 2. I have went to several stamp shows. 2. gone 3. saw 3. At nearly every show, I seen many rare and valuable stamps. 4. I telled my friend Warren that I aim to own some of those stamps one day. 4. told 5. I once saw a picture of a rare two-cent stamp that cost one collector $1.1 million in 1987. 5. C 6. set 6. As you might imagine, that price setted a world record! 7. Stamps have appear in many shapes. 7. appeared 8. sent 8. My uncle, a mail carrier, sended me a banana-shaped stamp. 9. He also has give me a book about the history of stamp collecting. 9. given 10. It sayed that stamp collecting was already a popular hobby by the 1860s. 10. said Exercise 17 Choosing Correct Verb Forms Reference Note For information about using rise and raise, sit and set, and lie and lay, see page 190.

Choose the correct verb form in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. (Set, Sit) those packages down, and come help me

catch these kittens. 1. Set

1. Did Keefe (rise, raise) the flag for the ceremony? 2. The crowd roared when Sheila (sit, set) a new track record for the fifty-yard dash. 3. A giant lobster was (laying, lying) motionless on the seabed. 388

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4. The incoming tide (rose, raised) the boat that had been beached on the sandbar. 5. An heirloom quilt (lays, lies) neatly folded on the bed. 6. Why is the price of housing (rising, raising) in this area? 7. Someone had (laid, lain) a row of stones carefully on either side of the path. 8. Freshly washed and brushed, the mare walked out to the corral, (lay, laid ) down in the dust, and rolled over three or four times. 9. By noon, the fog had (risen, raised) and the sun had come out. 10. In the old photograph, five Sioux warriors (sat, set) and stared with dignity into the camera. Exercise 18 Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

EXAMPLE

1. Doris and (me, I) are planning a trip to Vietnam.

1. I

Reference Note For information on using pronouns correctly, see Chapter 10.

1. Will you take the first-aid class with (we, us)? 2. The principal gave (he, him) the key to the trophy case. 3. The minister gave (they, them) a wedding present. 4. Ulani and (he, him) greeted their guests with “Aloha!” 5. Mr. Galvez saved the comics especially for (I, me). 6. (They, Them) are learning how to draw with pastels. 7. R. J. asked (she, her) for a new CD. 8. Stan’s jokes amused Martha and (I, me). 9. The person who called you last night was (I, me). 10. The captain of the debate team is (she, her). Exercise 19 Identifying Correct Pronoun Forms

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. The guest speaker told (us, we) students many facts

about Hispanic Americans in the arts. 1. us

Reference Note For information on using pronouns correctly, see Chapter 10.

1. Mrs. Ramirez picked out some poems by Jimmy Santiago Baca and read (they, them) to us. Grammar and Usage

389

COMMON ERRORS

Choose the correct form of the pronoun in parentheses in each of the following sentences.

2. Jan and (he, him) agree that Barbara Carrasco’s murals are outstanding. 3. Between you and (I, me), Gaspar Perez de Villagra’s account of an early expedition to the American Southwest sounds interesting. 4. (He, Him) wrote the first book to have been written in what is now the United States. 5. Our teacher showed (we, us) pictures of the work of the Puerto Rican artist Arnaldo Roche. 6. (Who, Whom) is your favorite artist? 7. The writings of Christina Garcia appeal to (we, us). 8. In Luz’s opinion, the best writer is (she, her). 9. Tito Puente recorded at least one hundred albums and appeared in several movies; we saw (he, him) in Radio Days. 10. (Who, Whom) did you research for your report?

Exercise 20 Proofreading for Correct Pronoun Usage Reference Note For information about using pronouns correctly, see Chapter 10.

Most of the following sentences contain errors in pronoun usage. Identify each error, and give the correct pronoun. If a sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. Who did the student council appoint?

1. Who—Whom

COMMON ERRORS

1. Let me know whom will be in charge of decorating. 1. who 2. Mr. Rodriguez gave Nicole and we shop students a handout on using the jigsaw safely. 2. us 3. Waiting for us at the door were Grandma and they. 3. C 4. For Ron and myself, geometry is easy. 4. me 5. Gina, us girls are going to the park to fly our kites; come along with us! 5. we 6. Mr. Chin, his wife, and me are going to the Mayan exhibit at the museum next weekend. 6. I 7. The big dog always keeps the bowl of food for hisself, so we feed the little dog on the porch. 7. himself 8. From who could we borrow a map? 8. whom 9. Yes, the team did all the planning and production of the video by theirselves. 9. themselves 10. The only ones who can speak French are us boys from Miss LaRouche’s class. 10. we

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Exercise 21 Choosing Correct Forms of Modifiers

Choose the correct form of the modifier in parentheses in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Many people think that of all pets, Siamese cats are

the (better, best). 1. best

Reference Note For information on using modifiers correctly, see Chapter 11.

Exercise 22 Proofreading for Correct Modifiers

Most of the following sentences contain errors in the use of modifiers. Identify each incorrect modifier, and supply the correct form. If the sentence is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

Reference Note For information on using modifiers correctly, see Chapter 11.

1. Low, green hills roll gentle in the dawn mist.

1. gentle—gently

1. The tourists looked uncomfortably as they rode the elephant along the beach. 1. uncomfortable 2. An Indian elephant calmly carried a surfboard with its trunk and did the job good, too. 2. well 3. The white waves of the Bay of Bengal smell quite well to us.

3. good Grammar and Usage

391

COMMON ERRORS

1. The boys thought that they were (stronger, strongest), but the girls beat them in the tug of war. 2. The (simplest, simpler) way to attract birds to a yard is by having water available for them. 3. Jovita is the (most intelligent, intelligentest) student in the seventh grade. 4. I worry about my grades (least often, less often) now that I do my homework every night. 5. Kim Lee has traveled ( farthest, farther) on her bicycle than anyone else in our class has. 6. Hasn’t this year’s quiz-bowl team won (more, most) local competitions than last year’s team? 7. Grandfather says that this winter is the (colder, coldest) one he remembers. 8. Wynton Marsalis was born in the city (more, most) associated with jazz—New Orleans. 9. Bicyclists who wear helmets are injured (least, less) often than those who do not. 10. Louisiana has ( fewer, fewest) wetlands than it once had.

4. The island of Sri Lanka was once known as Ceylon, and tea grows good there. 4. well 5. C 5. At first, I felt bad for the workers up to their waists in mud. 6. I thought they had the worstest job in the world. 6. worst 7. They were searching for rubies and garnets that might appear sudden in their muddy baskets. 7. suddenly 8. I couldn’t recognize a raw gem very well; could you? 8. C 9. I thought the highlands, especially Sri Pada and World’s End, looked beautifully. 9. beautiful 10. You can live simple when you are in Sri Lanka. 10. simply

Exercise 23 Revising Sentences to Correct Double

Comparisons and Double Negatives Reference Note For information about double comparisons, see page 230. For information about double negatives, see page 231.

Revise each of the following sentences to correct each double comparison or double negative. Answers may vary. EXAMPLES

1. Of the three games, the first was the least funnest.

1. Of the three games, the first was the least fun. 2. There are not hardly any stores near the ranch.

2. There are hardly any stores near the ranch.

COMMON ERRORS

1. The recycling center is much more busier than it used to be. 2. Sometimes even indoor water pipes freeze if they do not have no insulation around them. 3. I think that our dog Sammy is most happiest when the weather is cold. 4. I haven’t received a birthday card from neither of my grandmothers yet. 4. either 5. Almost any circle that you draw by hand will be less rounder than one you draw with a compass. 5. round 6. Wearing sunscreen with a high sun-protection factor can make being in the sun more safer. 7. My second-oldest cousin, Giovanni, is not like nobody else I know. 7. anybody 8. anywhere 8. We never went nowhere during spring vacation this year. 9. That was probably the most cleverest chess move I’ve ever seen you use, Elise. 9. clever 10. When I’m old enough to vote, I’m not never going to miss a chance to do so.

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Exercise 24 Revising Sentences by Correcting the

Placement of Modifiers

The following sentences contain errors in the placement of modifiers. Revise each sentence by adding or rearranging words or by doing both to correct the placement of each modifier. EXAMPLE

1. My grandmother and I saw a horse on the way to

Reference Note For information about the correct placement of modifiers, see page 232.

the movie. 1. On the way to the movie, my grandmother and I saw a horse.

1. The party was held in the park celebrating Mary’s birthday. 2. With wind-filled sails, I saw a ship approaching the harbor. 3. The tree was struck by lightning that we had pruned. 4. The Yamamotos enjoyed planting the iris that arrived from their Japanese relatives in a box. 5. The softball team is from my hometown that won the district championship. 6. Trying to steal home, the catcher tagged the runner. 7. Jaime told Katya about the kitten playing in a happy voice. 8. Painted bright colors, Kamal saw many houses. 9. Hanging from a clothes rack, the drama students finally found the costumes. 10. Recently picked from the orchard, the bowl was full of fruit. Exercise 25 Identifying Correct Usage

EXAMPLE

1. The boys carried the new recycling containers

(themselves, theirselves). 1. themselves

Reference Note For information on common usage errors, see Chapter 12. For information on formal, standard English, see page 245.

1. This orange marmalade smells (bad, badly). 2. In science class last week, we learned (how come, why) water expands when it freezes. 3. The dam (busted, burst) because of the rising floodwaters. 4. Mario should plant (fewer, less) bulbs in that small flower bed. 5. This button looks (as if, like) it will match the material. 6. Let’s (try and, try to) arrive at the concert early so that we can get good seats. Grammar and Usage

393

COMMON ERRORS

From the word or words in parentheses in each of the following sentences, choose the answer that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard English.

7. The defending champion played (good, well) during the chess tournament. 8. Yes, our nearest neighbor lives a long (way, ways) from us. 9. Those (kind, kinds) of fabrics are made in Madras, India. 10. Did you share the leftover chop suey (among, between) the three of you? Exercise 26 Identifying Correct Usage

Reference Note

COMMON ERRORS

For information about common usage errors, see Chapter 12. For information about formal, standard English, see page 245.

From the word or words in parentheses in each of the following sentences, choose the answer that is correct according to the rules of formal, standard English. EXAMPLE

1. Mrs. Lawrence is (learning, teaching) us about the

Hohokam culture. 1. teaching

1. The Hohokam civilization (might of, might have) begun around 300 B.C. 2. Where did the Hohokam people (live, live at)? 3. The Hohokam (use to, used to) live in the American Southwest. 4. Hohokam farmers grew their crops in a climate that was (real, extremely) dry. 5. The Hohokam irrigated the land by using (alot, a lot) of canals—more than six hundred miles of them! 6. (Them, These) canals sometimes changed the courses of rivers. 7. The Hohokam were also skilled artisans (who’s, whose) work included jewelry, bowls, and figurines. 8. I (can, can’t) hardly imagine what caused the culture to change so much around A.D. 1450. 9. (Their, They’re) descendants are the Papago and the Pima peoples. 10. We read (that, where) one Hohokam site is known as Snaketown. Exercise 27 Proofreading Sentences for Correct Usage

Reference Note For information about common usage errors, see Chapter 12. For information about formal, standard English, see page 245.

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Each of the following sentences contains an error in the use of formal, standard English. Identify each error. Then, write the correct usage. EXAMPLE

Correcting Common Errors

1. If that ain’t the proper first aid for heat exhaustion,

what is? 1. ain’t—isn’t

COMMON ERRORS

1. During the track meet last Saturday, we used a American Red Cross guidebook for first aid. 1. an 2. Fortunately, their was a handy section about treating heat exhaustion. 2. there 3. The day of the meet, the temperature was hotter then it had been all summer. 3. than 4. The athletes were all ready hot by the time that the track meet began. 4. already 5. Some of the runners should of been drinking more water than they were. 5. should have 6. Several of the athletes which were not used to running in such high temperatures needed medical treatment for heat exhaustion. 6. who [or that] 7. We volunteers helped the runners like the first-aid guidebook instructed. 7. as 8. They soon felt alright after we led them out of the heat and helped them cool down. 8. all right 9. The doctor on duty at the meet examined them and checked they’re vital signs. 9. their 10. According to the doctor, even athletes in good condition must protect theirselves against heat exhaustion and heatstroke. 10. themselves

Grammar and Usage

395

Grammar and Usage Test: Section 1 Read the paragraph that follows. For each numbered blank, select the word or word group that best completes the sentence.

DIRECTIONS EXAMPLE

1. The platypus is one of _(1)_ mammals that lays eggs.

(A) (B) (C) (D) ANSWER

to too two 2

COMMON ERRORS

The platypus is .(1). very unusual mammal. It .(2). external ears, .(3). feet are webbed, and it has thick fur. A broad tail and a fleshy bill .(4). to the platypus’s odd appearance. Platypuses use .(5). bills to catch water worms and insects. Besides having a bill like a duck’s, a platypus is .(6). like a bird than a mammal in another important way. Like a duck, the platypus .(7). eggs. The mother deposits .(8). in a nest, .(9). she has dug in a riverbank. If you get to Australia, you may see a platypus making its nest .(10). a burrow.

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1. (A) an 1. B (B) a (C) the (D) some

5. (A) its 5. D (B) it’s (C) they’re (D) their

2. (A) don’t have no 2. D (B) doesn’t have no (C) has any (D) has no

6. (A) more 6. A (B) most (C) mostly (D) least

3. (A) its 3. A (B) it’s (C) its’ (D) their

7. (A) lays 7. A (B) lies (C) is lying (D) has lain

4. (A) adds 4. B (B) add (C) added (D) adding

8. (A) it 8. C (B) they (C) them (D) their

Correcting Common Errors

9. (A) which (B) it (C) who (D) whom

10. (A) inside of 10. D (B) outside of (C) a ways from (D) inside

9. A

Grammar and Usage Test: Section 2 Part or all of each of the following items is underlined. Using the rules of formal, standard English, choose the revision that most clearly expresses the meaning of the item. If there is no error, choose A.

DIRECTIONS

EXAMPLE

1. The chopsticks that my aunt sent us made of

bamboo.

(A) The chopsticks that my aunt sent us made of bamboo. (B) The chopsticks that my aunt sent us are made of bamboo. (C) The chopsticks are made of bamboo, that my aunt sent us. (D) That my aunt sent us chopsticks made of bamboo. 1.

1. Don’t buy none of that ripe fruit if you don’t plan to eat it soon. (A) Don’t buy none of that ripe fruit if you don’t plan to eat it soon. (B) Do buy none of that ripe fruit if you don’t plan to eat it soon. (C) Don’t buy none of that ripe fruit if you do plan to eat it soon. (D) Don’t buy any of that ripe fruit if you don’t plan to eat it soon.

1. D

COMMON ERRORS

ANSWER

2. The study group meeting in the library on Wednesday? 2. C (A) The study group meeting in the library on Wednesday? (B) The study group that will be meeting in the library on Wednesday? (C) Is the study group meeting in the library on Wednesday? (D) Will the study group meeting in the library on Wednesday?

Grammar and Usage

397

3. Some visitors to the park enjoy rock climbing others prefer kayaking. 3. D (A) climbing others prefer kayaking (B) climbing, others prefer kayaking (C) climbing, others, who prefer kayaking (D) climbing, and others prefer kayaking 4. Martin prepares the salad, Justine sets the table. (A) prepares the salad, Justine sets the table (B) prepares the salad, and Justine sets the table (C) prepares the salad Justine sets the table (D) preparing the salad, and Justine sets the table

4. B

5. Many Cherokee now live in Oklahoma, but this area were not their original home. 5. B (A) this area were not their original home (B) this area was not their original home (C) this area was not they’re original home (D) this area were not they’re original home

COMMON ERRORS

6. Pulling weeds in the garden, a tiny toad was discovered by Ernie. (A) Pulling weeds in the garden, a tiny toad was discovered by Ernie. (B) A tiny toad was discovered pulling weeds in the garden by Ernie. (C) While pulling weeds in the garden, a tiny toad was discovered by Ernie. (D) Pulling weeds in the garden, Ernie discovered a tiny toad. 7. Will rehearse together for the.class play. 7. C (A) Will rehearse together for the class play. (B) Will be rehearsing together for the class play. (C) We will rehearse together for the class play. (D) Because we will rehearse together for the class play.

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Correcting Common Errors

6. D

8. Some people are more afraider of snakes than of any other kind of animal. 8. C (A) more afraider (B) afraid (C) more afraid (D) most afraid 9. Several important African kingdoms developed between Lake Chad and the Atlantic Ocean. 9. A (A) Several important African kingdoms developed between Lake Chad and the Atlantic Ocean. (B) Several important African kingdoms that developed between Lake Chad and the Atlantic Ocean. (C) Several important African kingdoms between Lake Chad and the Atlantic Ocean. (D) Several important African kingdoms developing between Lake Chad and the Atlantic Ocean.

FRANK & ERNEST reprinted by permission of Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc.

COMMON ERRORS

10. The singer waved to some people he knew in the audience from the stage. 10. D (A) The singer waved to some people he knew in the audience from the stage. (B) The singer waved to some people from the stage he knew in the audience. (C) The singer waved to some people from the stage in the audience he knew. (D) The singer waved from the stage to some people he knew in the audience.

Grammar and Usage

399

Exercise 28 Correcting Errors in Capitalization HELP Some capital letters in Exercise 28 are already used correctly.

The following groups of words contain errors in capitalization. Correct the errors either by changing capital letters to lowercase letters or by changing lowercase letters to capital letters. EXAMPLE

1. a buddhist temple

1. a Buddhist temple Reference Note For information on capital letters, see Chapter 13.

1. appalachian state university 2. world history and math 101 3. tuesday, May 1 4. senator williams 5. Summer In texas 6. Thirty-Fifth avenue 7. saturn and the moon 8. a korean Restaurant 9. empire state building 10. will rogers turnpike

Exercise 29 Proofreading Sentences for Correct

Capitalization Reference Note

COMMON ERRORS

For information on capital letters, see Chapter 13.

For each of the following sentences, find the words that should be capitalized but are not. Then, write the words correctly. EXAMPLE

1. American indians gave the name Buffalo Soldiers

to African American troops who served in the West during the civil war. 1. Indians, Civil War

1. Thirteen Buffalo Soldiers won the congressional medal of honor, which is the highest military award in the United States. 2. Black frontiers: A history of African american heroes in the Old west, by Lillian Schlissel, was published in 1995. 3. A chapter about mary fields tells the story of a woman known as Stagecoach Mary who drove freight wagons and stagecoaches in the west. 4. One of the museums listed in the back of the book is the great plains black museum in Omaha, Nebraska. 5. The book also tells about benjamin singleton, who was born into slavery.

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Correcting Common Errors

6. After the Civil War, he and some others bought land and founded the communities of Nicodemus and dunlap, kansas. 7. The exciting story of the cowboy Nat Love is told in his autobiography, the life and adventures of Nat Love. 8. bill pickett, who was of black, white, and American Indian ancestry, was one of the most famous rodeo competitors of all time. 8. or Black, White 9. Pickett’s biography was published by the university of oklahoma press in 1977. 10. The businessman and gold miner Barney Ford became very wealthy and built ford’s hotel on fifteenth street in denver, Colorado. Exercise 30 Proofreading Sentences for the Correct

Use of Commas

For each of the following sentences, write each word or numeral that should be followed by a comma and then add the comma. EXAMPLE

1. The colors of the French flag are red white and blue.

1. red, white,

Reference Note For information about using commas correctly, see page 294.

Optional commas are underscored.

COMMON ERRORS

1. No,the mountain dulcimer is not the same as the hammered dulcimer,but both of them are stringed instruments. 2. Abraham Lincoln ,who was the sixteenth president of the United States ,died on April 15,1865. 3. If you want to knit a sweater,you will need to get knitting needles ,yarn ,and a pattern. 4. After oiling the wheels on his sister’s wagon,Tyrel oiled the wheels on his skates and on his bicycle. 5. Competing in the 10K race,Nathan found that he could run faster than his friends. 6. In my opinion ,a person should be fined if loose trash in the back of his or her pickup truck blows out and litters the road. 7. Lupe,please show us how to use the new computer program. 8. Although Cody is afraid of heights,he rescued a cat that was stuck high in a tree. 9. I hope that Amy Tan,my favorite author,will write another book soon. 10. Many people want to conserve resources,yet some of these people overlook simple ways to recycle.

Mechanics

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Exercise 31 Using Periods, Question Marks,

Exclamation Points, and Commas Correctly Reference Note For information about end marks, see page 290. For information about commas, see page 294.

The following sentences lack necessary periods, question marks, exclamation points, and commas. Write the word before each missing punctuation mark, and insert the correct punctuation. EXAMPLE

1. When will Anita Luís Martina and Sam be back from

the mall 1. Anita, Luís, Martina, mall? Answers may vary. Optional commas are underscored. 1. Wow,look at the size of that alligator! [or Wow! . . . alligator.]

2. Leaning against the mast I could feel the sails catch the wind 3. Won’t these new colorful curtains brighten this room? 4. By the way,that stack of newspapers should be recycled 5. Oil paints,whether used for art projects or home improvement should be used only in well-ventilated areas. 6. Hidiko,watch out for that cactus! [or . . . cactus.] 7. Was Uncle Jesse born in Cincinnati,Ohio,or Louisville, Kentucky 8. As far as I am concerned ,the most interesting parts of the lecture were about the life of W. E.B.DuBois . 9. Monday Tuesday or Wednesday will be fine for our next meeting. 10. Would you like to watch a movie tonight ,or should I bring over the model-plane kit to work on together?

COMMON ERRORS

Exercise 32 Using Semicolons and Colons Correctly Reference Note For information about semicolons and colons, see page 310.

The following sentences lack necessary semicolons and colons. Write the words or numerals that come before and after the needed punctuation, and insert the correct punctuation. EXAMPLE

1. Elena learned Spanish and English at home she

learned French and German at school. 1. home; she

1. They should be here before 9 30 this morning. 2. Our recycling center accepts the following materials glass, newspaper, cardboard, and aluminum cans. 3. The landscape designer planted bushes around the school last fall she will plant flowers this spring. 4. Please be at the station by 2 15 P.M.

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5. The children wanted to see bears, lions, and elephants but parrots, snakes, tortoises, and goats were the only animals there. 6. The sermon was based on Isaiah 61:1. 7. To refinish this dresser, we will need some supplies varnish remover, sandpaper, steel wool, wood stain, and a clear polyurethane sealant. 8. Walking is terrific exercise it improves both your stamina and your muscle tone. 9. Many children’s books have beautiful illustrations some are worth having just for the art. 10. Many palaces in Europe are spectacular Linderhof in Bavaria is my favorite.

Exercise 33 Punctuating and Capitalizing

Quotations and Titles

For each of the following sentences, correct any capitalization errors and add or change quotation marks and other marks of punctuation where needed. EXAMPLE

1. I learned how to play a new virtual-reality game today

Reference Note For information about punctuating and capitalizing quotations, see page 322.

Pat said. 1. “I learned how to play a new virtual-reality game today,” Pat said.

COMMON ERRORS

1. The most helpful chapter in my computer manual is “Search Tips” I explained to her. 2. Do Asian cobras look like African cobras Shawn asked. 3. I want to go to the fair after school Ivan said but my trumpet lesson is today. 4. The pilot said we are now beginning our descent into Orlando. Please fasten your seat belts, and return your seats to the upright position. 5. Goodness! what a surprise Taka exclaimed 6. Did some famous person say A smile is contagious 7. Cyclists should always wear helmets said the safety officer 8. Was it he who said a penny saved is a penny earned Troy asked 9. Carlos shouted, look at that dolphin near our boat! 10. During his speech at our school, the mayor said Our children are our future

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Exercise 34 Punctuating and Capitalizing

Quotations and Titles Reference Note For information about using quotation marks, see page 322.

For each of the following sentences, correct any capitalization errors and add or change quotation marks and other marks of punctuation where needed. EXAMPLE

1. Sheila asked have you read about Rigoberta Menchú?

1. Sheila asked, “Have you read about Rigoberta Menchú?”

COMMON ERRORS

1. She has lived a remarkable life Ernesto said and I admire her very much 2. Angela exclaimed yes, I know about Menchú! 3. Menchú is from Guatemala said Mrs. Harper She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992. 4. I once wrote about Menchú in a poem called “The Heart of a Peacemaker” Gale said. 5. I think Rigoberta Menchú is a great role model Carla said. 6. Menchú has tried to make life better for the laborers. Her own family is of Quiché heritage explained Mark 7. Did Stephanie say My dream is to meet Rigoberta Menchú asked Ryan 8. Yes, and I’d like to meet her too exclaimed Emilio. 9. Mark continued Menchú worked long hours on cotton and coffee plantations when she was a child. 10. Menchú’s autobiography is I . . . Rigoberta Menchú said Mrs. Harper.

Exercise 35 Using Apostrophes Correctly Reference Note For information on using apostrophes, see page 330.

Add, delete, or move apostrophes where needed in the following word groups. If a word group is already correct, write C. EXAMPLE

1. both boys shoes

1. boys’

1. somebodys lunch 2. cant play 3. Neals motorcycle 4. better than theirs 4. C 5. womens volleyball

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

too many letter us its engine 7. C Betsy Rosss flag no more ifs the bushes branches

Exercise 36 Correcting Spelling Errors

Most of the following words are misspelled. If a word is spelled incorrectly, write the correct spelling. If a word is already spelled correctly, write C. EXAMPLE

1. succede

Reference Note For information on spelling rules, see page 348.

1. succeed

1. taxs 2. neice 3. supercede 4. disallow 5. countrys 6. emptyness 7. tracable

8. stathood 9. lovelyer 10. clearest 11. wolfs 12. sheild 13. preceed 14. father-in-laws

15. improper 16. fancifuly 17. dryest 18. cluless 19. overjoied 20. skiping

Exercise 37 Choosing Between Words Often Confused

From each pair in parentheses, choose the word or words that make the sentence correct. EXAMPLE

1. The school plans to (except, accept) the new

computer company’s offer. 1. accept

Reference Note For information on words often confused, see page 358.

COMMON ERRORS

1. Did Coach Jefferson (advise, advice) you to take the first-aid course at the community center? 2. My cousins and I are (all ready, already) to enter the marathon. 3. Sacramento became the (capital, capitol) of California in 1854. 4. When garden hoses (brake, break), they sometimes can be mended with waterproof tape. 5. Avoid wearing (loose, lose) clothing when operating that equipment. 6. Many people know Mr. Perez, but I think he should be (formerly, formally) introduced. 7. My grandfather threw the football (passed, past) the trees and over the creek. 8. (Its, It’s) a good idea to test home smoke detectors frequently to make sure the batteries are still working. 9. One basic (principle, principal) of our Constitution is the right to free speech. 10. Some cats are called bobtails because of (their, there) very short tails. Mechanics

405

Mechanics Test: Section 1 Each numbered item below consists of an underlined word or word group. Choose the answer that shows the correct capitalization, punctuation, and spelling of the underlined part. If there is no error, choose D (Correct as is).

DIRECTIONS

EXAMPLE

[1] 29 South Maple street

(A) 29 south Maple Street (B) 29 South Maple Street (C) Twenty Nine South Maple Street (D) Correct as is ANSWER

29 South Maple Street Philadelphia, PA 19107 [1] January 15 2001 Mail-Order Sales Manager [2] Direct Electronics, Inc. 214-C Billings Boulevard [3] New Castle, Ken 40050 [4] Dear Sales Manager, COMMON ERRORS

The modem that I ordered from your company arrived today in [5] peices. The package was [6] open,.and appeared not to have been sealed properly. [7] In addition I have not yet received the computer game that I also ordered. Please send me a new [8] modem the broken modem is enclosed. I appreciate [9] you’re prompt attention to both of these matters. [10] Sincerely yours,

Cameron Scott

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1. (A) January 15, 2001 1. A (B) January, 15 2001 (C) January 15th 2001 (D) Correct as is

6. (A) open and appeared 6. A (B) open; and appeared (C) open, and, appeared (D) Correct as is

2. (A) direct electronics, inc. 2. D (B) Direct electronics, inc. (C) Direct Electronics, inc. (D) Correct as is

7. (A) In addition, I (B) In addition i (C) In addition, i (D) Correct as is

3. (A) New Castle Ken. 40050 (B) New Castle, KY 40050 (C) New Castle KY, 40050 (D) Correct as is

8. (A) modem, the (B) modem; the (C) modem: the (D) Correct as is

3. B

4. (A) Dear sales manager, 4. C (B) dear sales manager: (C) Dear Sales Manager: (D) Correct as is

7. A

8. B

9. (A) youre 9. C (B) your, (C) your (D) Correct as is

5. (A) pieces 5. A (B) piece’s (C) peaces (D) Correct as is

10. (A) Sincerely Yours’, (B) Sincerely your’s, (C) Sincerely yours: (D) Correct as is

10. D

COMMON ERRORS

Mechanics Test: Section 2 Each of the following sentences contains an underlined word or word group. Choose the answer that shows the correct capitalization, punctuation, and spelling of the underlined part. If there is no error, choose D (Correct as is).

DIRECTIONS

EXAMPLE

1. Rosie said that her cousin sent her that soft colorful fabric

from Kenya.

(A) soft, colorful, fabric (B) soft, colorful fabric (C) soft; colorful fabric (D) Correct as is ANSWER

Mechanics

407

1. C

1. The following people have volunteered to make enchiladas, Manuel, Shawn, and Anita. (A) enchiladas; Manuel (C) enchiladas: Manuel (B) enchiladas. Manuel (D) Correct as is

2. A

2. Our school’s recycling program which is now three years old, has been quite successful. (A) recycling program, which (C) recycling program; which (B) Recycling Program, which (D) Correct as is

3. C

3. Looking at the astronomical map in my science book I spotted the constellations Orion, Taurus, and Pisces. (A) Looking at the astronomical map, in my science book I (B) Looking at the astronomical map, in my science book, I (C) Looking at the astronomical map in my science book, I (D) Correct as is

4. A

4. Donna asked, “who plans to work as a baby sitter over the summer?”

COMMON ERRORS

(A) asked, “Who (B) asked “who 5. D

5. Angela and Wanda painted the mural, and Jamal attached it to the wall in the gym. (A) mural and Jamal (C) mural, and jamal (B) mural: and Jamal (D) Correct as is

6. C

6. Many television programs have closed captioning for people who cant hear. (A) people, who cant (C) people who can’t (B) people, who can’t (D) Correct as is

7. B

7. “What a great time we had at the park”! Sandy exclaimed as she got into the car. (A) Park”! Sandy (C) park”, Sandy (B) park!” Sandy (D) Correct as is

8. D

8. “Your aunt Helen certainly is a fascinating person,” Carla said. (A) “Your Aunt Helen (B) “Your aunt, Helen

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9. “Many of us would have gone to the picnic if we had known about it” Alan said. (A) it”, (B) it,” (C) it, (D) Correct as is 10. The Zunigas have a new puppy; its a cocker spaniel. (C) puppy, its (D) Correct as is

11. The ants carried large leafs across John Henry’s backyard. (A) carryed large leafs (B) carryed large leaves

11. C

12. Has the guide all ready led the hikers to the top of the mesa? (A) all ready lead (B) already lead

10. B

12. C

13. If Carlos wants to play the role of Eddie in the musical, he’ll have too practice the solos. (A) musical, he’ll have to practice (B) musical; he’ll have to practice (C) musical he’ll have too practice (D) Correct as is

13. A

COMMON ERRORS

(A) puppy; Its (B) puppy; it’s

9. B

14. Sara said that the big guppy in the class aquarium is going to have 14. D babies. (A) Sara said “That the big guppy in the class aquarium is going to have babies.” (B) Sara said “that the big guppy in the class aquarium is going to have babies.” (C) Sara said “That the big guppy in the class aquarium is going to have babies”. (D) Correct as is 15. On October 1 1960 Nigeria became an independent nation. (A) October, 1 1960 (B) October 1, 1960,

15. B

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Sentences

18 Writing Effective Sentences 19 Sentence Diagramming

GO TO: go.hrw.com

Sentences

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CHAPTER

Writing Effective Sentences Diagnostic Preview A. Identifying Sentences, Sentence Fragments, and Run-on Sentences Identify each of the following word groups as a sentence, a sentence fragment, or a run-on sentence. Rewrite each fragment and run-on to make one or more complete sentences. Terms in brackets refer to concepts tested by the items in the Diagnostic Preview.

1. The mouse makes a noise [fragment] 2. sentence [sentence] 3. . [run-on] 4. Tell me [fragment] 5. , and [run-on] 6. , so [compound sentence] 7. and [compound verb] 8. and butterflies [compound subject]

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EXAMPLE

Here are possible answers. 1. After we left. 1. sentence fragment—After we left, I sighed.

1. Like the sound of my pencil on paper. 2. Before we go, please pack the suitcases. 3. Lunch tasted great, we finished everything on our plates. 4. If you think the answer is twenty-two or twenty-four. 5. At sunrise I climbed out of bed then I brushed my teeth. B. Combining Sentences Combine the sentences in the following items. EXAMPLE

1. Jon left early. He didn’t feel well. 1. Jon left early because he didn’t feel well. Here are possible revisions.

6. I care about the environment. I recycle everything that I can. 7. He collects rocks. He keeps them in a special box. 8. Bees are flying insects that help pollinate flowers. Butterflies are flying insects that help pollinate flowers.

Writing Effective Sentences

C. Revising Stringy and Wordy Sentences Each of the following sentences is stringy, wordy, or both. Revise each sentence to make it simpler and clearer.

9. tiny [inserting words] 10. , one of our best teachers, [appositive phrase]

EXAMPLE

1. Robbie covered the floor with crackers, but his sitter walked in, and she gasped, and she picked Robbie up. 1. Robbie covered the floor with crackers. His sitter walked in, gasped, and picked Robbie up. Revisions will vary.

11. Felicia and her family visited Carlsbad Caverns, and they spent the whole afternoon inside the cave, but they came out in the evening, and they watched the bats emerge. 12. Felicia’s brother wanted to take a picture, but the ranger stopped him, and she told him to put his camera away. 13. He smiled at her, and that was a polite thing for him to have done, but he still really wanted a picture. 14. Due to the fact that he had put his camera away, the ranger told him that she had a poster that she could give him. 15. The ranger walked to her bag, and she took out a poster that was a poster of a bat, and she gave the poster to him.

11. When/. /[stringy sentence] 12. [stringy sentence] 13. politely [stringy sentence, wordy sentence 14. Because [wordy sentence] 15. it [stringy sentence, wordy sentence]

D. Creating Sentence Variety and Using Transitions Revise the following paragraph to create sentences of different length and structure, vary sentence beginnings, and improve transitions between thoughts. EXAMPLE

I like to watch storms. I especially like exciting storms. I especially like to watch exciting storms. Revisions will vary.

[sentence variety, transitions]

A storm rolled in after sunset last night. Lightning lit the sky. It was on the horizon. The warm wind cooled. The breeze smelled like wet asphalt. The birds were silent. We sat on the porch. The storm got closer. We watched the lightning. It flickered. The thunder rumbled. It shook the porch. It rumbled again. The porch shook again. I grew worried. I imagined that I was a wilted tree. I imagined that I was a patch of dried grass. I felt better about the storm. It looked like a welcome relief.

on the horizon , and As , /flicker , / , and As/ , /Then or/Then and thought

Diagnostic Preview

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SENTENCES

9. She sculpts paper clips into pyramids. The pyramids are tiny. 10. Ms. Merriam sometimes plays piano for our class. She is one of our best teachers.

Writing Complete Sentences SENTENCES

HELP A word group that has a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete thought is an independent clause. All complete sentences contain at least one independent clause.

One of the best ways to make your writing clear is to use complete sentences. A complete sentence • has a subject • has a verb • expresses a complete thought SENTENCES

Reference Note For more information about independent clauses, see page 114.

The sentences above express complete thoughts. That is, each sentence has a topic (the subject) and tells you something about that topic. NOTE

Reference Note For more information on imperative sentences, see page 18.

Imperative sentences (sentences that express a command or direct request) have understood subjects. That is, the subject of the sentence is not expressed in the sentence but is understood to be you. REQUEST

COMMAND TIPS

Please tell me more. [The subject is understood to be you. The verb is tell.] Listen! [The subject is understood to be you. The verb is Listen.]

TRICKS

Some words look like verbs but really aren’t. These “fake” verbs can fool you into thinking a group of words is a sentence when it is really a fragment. A word that ends in –ing cannot stand as a verb unless it has a helping verb (such as is, are, or were) with it. FRAGMENT The children playing on the swings. [Without a helping verb, this is not a complete thought.] SENTENCE The children were playing on the swings.

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Trees absorb excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. [The subject is Trees. The verb is absorb.] Are some species in danger of extinction? [The subject is species. The verb is Are.]

Chapter 18

Sentence Fragments Incomplete sentences are called sentence fragments. A sentence fragment is a word or word group that looks like a sentence but that has no subject, has no verb, or does not express a complete thought. Because it is incomplete, a sentence fragment can confuse your reader. FRAGMENT

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

Writing Effective Sentences

Went to the grocery store yesterday. [This word group contains no subject. Who went to the grocery store yesterday?] We went to the grocery store yesterday. The bird nest in the top of the oak tree. [This word group contains no verb. What about the bird nest in the top of the oak tree?]

FRAGMENT

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

SENTENCE

The bird nest is in the top of the oak tree. Before the ice on the lake melts. [Although this word group contains a subject and a verb, it does not express a complete thought. What will happen before the ice on the lake melts?] We will go skating before the ice on the lake melts.

SENTENCES

SENTENCE

My friend Larry, who has a good voice. [This word group contains a subject, friend, but that subject doesn’t have a verb. What about my friend Larry, who has a good voice?] My friend Larry, who has a good voice, is singing.

As you can see from the examples, you can correct some sentence fragments by adding a subject or a verb. Other fragments need to be attached to an independent clause to make a complete sentence. HELP

Oral Practice

Identifying Sentence Fragments

Read each of the following groups of words aloud, and decide whether it is a sentence fragment or a complete sentence. F F F S F F S F F S

Remember that a complete sentence meets three requirements: It has a subject, it has a verb, and it expresses a complete thought.

1. A flying squirrel a squirrel that can gracefully glide through the air. 2. Some Asian flying squirrels three feet long. 3. Skillfully leaps from one tree to another. 4. The squirrel glides downward, then straight, and finally upward. 5. Some flying squirrels more than fifty feet. 6. If they use a higher starting point. 7. Flying squirrels live in the forests of Asia, Europe, and North America. 8. To eat berries, birds’ eggs, insects, and nuts. 9. Nesting in the hollows of trees. 10. Notice how this squirrel stretches out its legs to help it glide.

Writing Complete Sentences

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Exercise 1

Finding and Revising Fragments

SENTENCES

Some of the following groups of words are sentence fragments. Revise each fragment so that it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. If an item is already a complete sentence, write S. EXAMPLE

1. As soon as we finished eating breakfast. 1. We left for our camping trip as soon as we finished eating breakfast. Possible revisions follow.

1. The storm began 2. S 3. , we unpacked 4. ran 5. We 6. S 7. We 8. S 9. was 10. , I cleaned the fish

1. As the whole family loaded into the car. 2. We traveled for hours. 3. When we arrived at the campground. 4. My sister and I down to the river. 5. Took our fishing gear with us. 6. We cast our lines the way our aunt had taught us. 7. Caught several trout in a few hours. 8. We headed back to the campsite at sunset. 9. Dad cooking bean soup over the fire. 10. While Mom and my sister pitched the tent.

Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence is a word group made up of two complete sentences that have been run together with no punctuation between them or with only a comma between them. Run-on sentences make it hard for the reader to tell where one thought ends and another begins. RUN-ON CORRECT

RUN-ON CORRECT

Mockingbirds are great mimics they can imitate the songs of at least twenty other bird species. Mockingbirds are great mimics. They can imitate the songs of at least twenty other bird species. People say that life is short, there are some redwoods more than 1,500 years old. People say that life is short, but there are some redwoods more than 1,500 years old.

NOTE

A comma does mark a brief pause in a sentence, but it does not show the end of a sentence. If you use just a comma between two sentences and if a coordinating conjunction does not follow the comma, you create a run-on sentence.

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Revising Run-on Sentences Here are three ways you can revise run-on sentences. RUN-ON CORRECT

Asteroids are tiny planets they are sometimes called planetoids. Asteroids are tiny planets. They are sometimes called planetoids.

2. You can use a comma and a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or or. RUN-ON CORRECT

Some asteroids shine with a steady light, others keep changing in brightness. Some asteroids shine with a steady light , but others keep changing in brightness.

Reference Note For more information about coordinating conjunctions, see page 62. For information about semicolons; see page 310.

3. You can use a semicolon. RUN-ON CORRECT

Asteroids vary greatly in size, they range from about twenty feet across to about 600 miles in diameter. Asteroids vary greatly in size; they range from about twenty feet across to about 600 miles in diameter.

Exercise 2

Identifying and Revising Run-on Sentences

Decide which of the following groups of words are run-on sentences. Then, revise each run-on in one of the ways shown above. If the group of words is already correct, write C. Sample revisions follow.

1. Saturn is a huge planet it is more than nine times larger than Earth. 1. ; 2. and 2. Saturn is covered by clouds, it is circled by bands of color. 3. Some of the clouds are yellow, others are off-white. 3. but 4. Saturn has about twenty moons Titan is the largest. 4. . 5. Many of Saturn’s moons have large craters the crater on Mimas covers one third of its diameter. 5. . 6. Saturn’s most striking feature is a group of rings that circles the planet. 6. C 7. The rings of Saturn are less than two miles thick, they spread out from the planet for a great distance. 7. and 8. The rings are made up of billions of tiny particles. 8. C 9. Some of the rings are dark, but others are brighter. 9. C 10. You can use a telescope to view Saturn, you can visit a planetarium. 10. or Writing Complete Sentences

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SENTENCES

1. You can make two sentences.

Review A

Correcting Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences

SENTENCES

Identify the sentence fragments and run-on sentences in the following paragraph. Then, revise each sentence fragment and run-on sentence to make the paragraph clearer. EXAMPLE

Here is a possible revision.

Visited the Mojave Desert. I visited the Mojave Desert.

Many deserts have very little plant life, some desert regions have a vari- but ety of plants. Many plants can survive. Where the climate is hot and dry. Cacti, Joshua trees, palm trees, and . wildflowers grow in deserts those plants do not grow close together. They so are spread out,each plant gets water and minerals from a large area.

Combining Sentences Although short sentences can sometimes express your ideas well, using only short sentences will make your writing sound choppy and dull. For example, read the following paragraph, which has only short sentences. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph. He also experimented with mechanical toys. Many people do not know this. Edison created a talking doll. He created the talking doll in 1894. The doll would recite a nursery rhyme or poem. It said the words when a crank in its back was turned. The talking doll was very popular. Edison opened a factory. The factory made five hundred of the dolls every day.

Now read the revised paragraph. Notice how the writer has combined some of the short sentences to make longer, smoother sentences. 418

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SENTENCES

Thomas Edison invented the phonograph. Many people do not know that he also experimented with mechanical toys. Edison created a talking doll in 1894. When a crank in its back was turned, the doll would recite a nursery rhyme or poem. The talking doll was very popular, and Edison opened a factory that made five hundred of the dolls every day.

Sentence combining also helps to reduce the number of repeated words and ideas. The revised paragraph is clearer, shorter, and more interesting to read. The following pages contain strategies for combining sentences. Once you learn these strategies, you can apply them to your own writing.

Combining Sentences by Inserting Words One way to combine short sentences is to take an important word from one sentence and insert it into another sentence. Sometimes you will need to change the form of the word before you can insert it. You can change some words into adjectives by adding an ending such as –ed, –ing, –ful, or –ly. The adjective can describe another word in the sentence. ORIGINAL COMBINED

Exercise 3

Easter lily plants have leaves. The leaves have points. Easter lily plants have pointed leaves.

Reference Note For more information about adjectives, see page 34.

Combining Sentences by Inserting Words

Each of the following items contains two sentences. To combine the two sentences, take the italicized word from the second sentence and insert it into the first sentence. The directions in parentheses will tell you how to change the form of the word if you need to do so. EXAMPLE

1. Peanuts are the tiny fruit of the peanut plant. They have a good taste. (Change taste to tasty.) 1. Peanuts are the tiny, tasty fruit of the peanut plant.

Combining Sentences

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1. growing

SENTENCES

1.This picture shows peanuts underground. They grow underground. (Add –ing.) 2.Peanuts are a crop of many warm regions. They are a major crop. 2. major 3. healthful 3.Peanuts are a food for snacking. Peanuts are good for your health. (Add –ful.) 4.The oil from peanuts is used in many dressings. The dressings are for salad. 4. salad 5.Grades of peanut oil are used to make soap and shampoo. The low grades are used for these products. 5. Low 6.Much of the world grows peanuts solely for their oil. This oil is versatile. 6. versatile 7. The peanut-producing countries include China, India, and the United States. These countries.lead the world in peanut production. (Add –ing.) 7. leading 8. Some soils will stain the peanut shells. Dark.soils are responsible for the stains. 8. dark 9. After peanuts are harvested, the plants are used for feed. The feed is for livestock. 9. livestock 10. Peanuts are a good source of vitamins. Peanuts contain B vitamins. 10. B

Combining Sentences by Inserting Phrases A phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech and that does not have both a subject and a verb. You can combine sentences by taking a phrase from one sentence and inserting it into another sentence. ORIGINAL COMBINED

ORIGINAL COMBINED

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Writing Effective Sentences

Arachne is a famous figure. She is a figure in Greek mythology. Arachne is a famous figure in Greek mythology. [The prepositional phrase in Greek mythology is inserted into the first sentence.] Arachne was proud. She was proud of her weaving. Arachne was proud of her weaving. [The prepositional phrase of her weaving is inserted into the first sentence.]

Before you insert a phrase into a sentence, ask yourself whether the phrase renames or identifies a noun or pronoun. If it does, it is an appositive phrase, and you may need to set it off with one or more commas. ORIGINAL

COMBINED

ORIGINAL COMBINED

For more information and practice on using commas to set off appositive phrases, see page 301.

Arachne challenged Athena to a weaving contest. Athena was the goddess of wisdom. Arachne challenged Athena, the goddess of wisdom, to a weaving contest. [The appositive phrase in boldface type renames the noun Athena.]

Another way to combine sentences is to change the verb and create a new phrase. Just add –ing or –ed to the verb, or put the word to in front of it. You can then use the new phrase to describe a noun, verb, or pronoun in a related sentence. ORIGINAL

Reference Note

The name Inuit refers to several groups of people. These people live in and near the Arctic. The name Inuit refers to several groups of people living in and near the Arctic. [The participial phrase living in and near the Arctic describes the noun people.]

Reference Note For more information about prepositional, participial, infinitive, and appositive phrases, see pages 89–106.

Early Inuit followed a special way of life. They did this so they could survive in a harsh environment. To survive in a harsh environment, early Inuit followed a special way of life. [The infinitive phrase To survive in a harsh environment modifies the verb followed.]

N O T E When you combine sentences by adding a word or phrase

from one sentence to another sentence, the resulting sentence may contain a compound phrase. Be sure to keep the compound elements parallel, or matching in form. Otherwise, instead of making your writing smoother, combining may actually make it more awkward. ORIGINAL NOT PARALLEL PARALLEL

Ana likes to hike. Ana also likes cycling. Ana likes to hike and cycling. [To hike is an infinitive; cycling is a gerund.] Ana likes hiking and cycling. [Hiking and cycling are both gerunds.]

HELP An infinitive is a verb form, often beginning with to, that can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A gerund is a verb form ending in –ing that is used as a noun.

Combining Sentences

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SENTENCES

NOTE

Exercise 4

Combining Sentences by Inserting Phrases

SENTENCES

Each of the following items contains two sentences. Combine the sentences by taking the italicized word group from the second sentence and inserting it into the first sentence. The hints in parentheses tell you how to change the forms of words if you need to do so. Remember to insert commas where they are needed. EXAMPLE

7. for European fur traders . 8. Needing to find other ways to provide for their families, 9. in the harsh Arctic climate . 10. Like the Canadian Inuit seen in the photo on this page,

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1. The Inuit followed their traditional way of life. They followed this way of life for thousands of years. 1. The Inuit followed their traditional way of life for thousands of years.

1. The Inuit built winter shelters in a few hours. They stacked blocks of snow. (Change stacked to Stacking.) 1. Stacking blocks of snow, 2. They used harpoons. This is how they hunted seals. (Change hunted to to hunt.) 2. to hunt seals . 3. The Inuit also hunted and ate caribou. Caribou are a type of.deer. 3. , a type of deer . 4. Whalers and fur traders came to the region and affected the Inuit way of life. They arrived in the 1800s. 4. in the 1800s 5. The Inuit often moved several times a year. They moved so that they could find food. (Change find to to find.) 5. to find food . 6. made from animal skin . 6. During the summer, traditional Inuit lived in tents. The tents were made from animal skin. 7. In the 1800s, many Inuit began to trap animals. They trapped animals for European fur traders. 8. Some Inuit worked on whaling ships. They needed to find other ways to provide for their families. (Change need to Needing.) 9. The Inuit have survived for thousands of years. They have survived in the harsh Arctic climate. 10. Most Inuit today follow a modern way of life. They are like the Canadian Inuit seen in the photo on this page.

Writing Effective Sentences

You can also use the coordinating conjunctions and, but, and or to combine sentences. Doing so is called coordination. With these connecting words, you can make a compound subject, a compound verb, or a compound sentence.

Compound Subjects and Verbs Sometimes two sentences have the same verb with different subjects. You can combine the sentences by linking the two subjects with and or or to make a compound subject. ORIGINAL COMBINED

Dolphins look a little like fish. Porpoises look a little like fish. Dolphins and porpoises look a little like fish.

Two sentences can also have the same subject with different verbs. You can use and, but, or or to connect the two verbs. The result is a compound verb. ORIGINAL COMBINED

Exercise 5

Dolphins live in water like fish. They breathe like other mammals. Dolphins live in water like fish but breathe like other mammals.

Combining Sentences by Creating Compound Subjects and Verbs

Combine each of the following pairs of short, choppy sentences by using and, but, or or. If the two sentences have the same verb, make a compound subject. If they have the same subject, make a compound verb. Remember to keep the ideas in parallel form. EXAMPLE

1. Dolphins belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. Porpoises belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. 1. Dolphins and porpoises belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. 1. and porpoises Here are possible revisions.

1. Dolphins are warm-blooded. Porpoises are warm-blooded. 2. Common dolphins live in warm waters. Common dolphins swim in large schools. 2. and swim in large schools . 3. Porpoises are similar to dolphins. Porpoises generally live in cooler water. 3. but

TIPS

TRICKS

When you use the coordinating conjunction and to link two subjects, your new compound subject will be a plural subject. Remember to make the verb agree with the subject in number. ORIGINAL Zach likes watching the sea mammals. Briana likes watching the sea mammals. COMBINED Zach and Briana like watching the sea mammals. [The plural verb like is needed with the plural subject Zach and Briana.] For more information on agreement of subjects and verbs, see page 148.

HELP When deciding whether to use and, but, or or, follow these rules. • And shows equality. Use it if you mean both. Katie and Tyrone are my friends. • But shows contrast. Use it to point out something different. Katie likes to play tennis, but Tyrone does not. • Or shows a choice. Use it if you have options. Usually either Katie or Tyrone waits for me after school. Combining Sentences

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SENTENCES

Combining Sentences Using And, But, or Or

SENTENCES

4. Dolphins have beak-like snouts. Dolphins use sonar to locate objects under water. 4. and 5. Dolphins hunt fish. Dolphins eat fish. 5. and eat 6. Dolphins swim by moving their tails up and down. Porpoises swim by moving their tails up and down. 6. and porpoises 7. Porpoises can swim fast. Dolphins can swim fast. 8. A porpoise could outswim most sharks. A tuna could outswim most sharks. 7. and dolphins 8. or a tuna 9. Bottle-nosed dolphins can measure up to fifteen feet in length. Bottle-nosed dolphins can weigh over four hundred pounds. 9. and can weigh over four hundred pounds . 10. Sharks sometimes attack porpoises. Sharks sometimes kill porpoises. 10. and kill

Compound Sentences Sometimes you will want to combine two sentences that express equally important ideas. You can connect two closely related, equally important sentences by using a comma plus the coordinating conjunction and, but, or or. Doing so creates a compound sentence. ORIGINAL COMBINED

ORIGINAL COMBINED

My brother entered the Annual Chili Cook-off. His chili won a prize. My brother entered the Annual Chili Cook-off, and his chili won a prize. I did not help cook. I helped him clean the kitchen. I did not help cook , but I helped him clean the kitchen.

NOTE

A compound sentence tells the reader that the two ideas are closely related. If you combine two short sentences that are not closely related, you may confuse your reader. UNRELATED RELATED

Exercise 6

Fernando mowed the grass, and I had a broom. Fernando mowed the grass, and I swept the sidewalk.

Combining Sentences by Forming a Compound Sentence

Each of the following pairs of sentences is closely related. Make each pair into a compound sentence by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction such as and or but. 424

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EXAMPLE

1. The Pueblos have lived in the same location for a long time. They have strong ties to their homeland. 1. The Pueblos have lived in the same location for a long time, and they have strong ties to their homeland. Here are possible combinations.

SENTENCES

1. Some Pueblos built villages in the valleys. Others settled in desert and mountain areas. 1. , but 2. Desert surrounded many of the valleys. The people grew crops with the help of irrigation systems. 2. , but 3. , and 3. Women gathered berries and other foods. Men hunted game. 4. Their adobe homes had several stories. The people used ladders to reach the upper levels. 4. , and 5. The Pueblos were generally peaceful. Some Pueblo tribes drove the Spanish from their territories. 5. , but 6. Today, each Pueblo village has its own government. The Pueblo people still share many customs. 6. , but 7. Long ago, women helped farm. Now only men cultivate Pueblo lands. 7. , but 8. Pueblo social life is still centered on the village. Native religion is important. 8. , and 9. Arts and crafts are part of the Pueblo economy. Pueblos also raise new kinds of crops. 9. , but 10. The Pueblos share many things with their ancestors. They enjoy much of modern life. 10. , but

Combining Sentences Using Subordinate Clauses A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Independent clauses can stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate (or dependent) clauses cannot stand alone because they do not express a complete thought. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Gertrude Ederle swam the English Channel. [This clause can stand alone.] when she was nineteen years old [This clause cannot stand alone.]

You can combine related sentences by using a subordinate clause. Doing so is called subordination. The resulting sentence is called a complex sentence. The subordinate clause gives information about a word or idea in the independent clause.

Reference Note For more information on independent clauses and subordinate clauses, see page 113.

Reference Note For more information on complex sentences, see page 135.

Combining Sentences

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SENTENCES

TWO SIMPLE SENTENCES ONE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Reference Note A clause that begins with who, which, or that and that modifies a noun or pronoun is an adjective clause. For more information on adjective clauses, see page 117.

Making Clauses That Begin with Who, Which, or That You can often make a short sentence into a subordinate clause by inserting who, which, or that in place of the subject. ORIGINAL COMBINED ORIGINAL COMBINED

Reference Note A clause that is used to give information about time and place and that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb is an adverb clause. For more information on adverb clauses, see page 120.

COMBINED ORIGINAL COMBINED

Everglades National Park is a large area. The area includes about one fifth of the Everglades’ original land. Everglades National Park is a large area that includes about one fifth of the Everglades’ original land.

The last ice age ended. Water from the melting ice flooded the area. After the last ice age ended, water from the melting ice flooded the area. No humans lived in the Everglades until 1842. In 1842, Seminoles fled to the area. No humans lived in the Everglades until 1842, when Seminoles fled to the area.

NOTE

Reference Note For more information on the use of commas with introductory clauses, see page 305.

If you put your time or place clause at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma after the clause. ORIGINAL COMBINED

Chapter 18

The Everglades consist mainly of swamps. The Everglades cover the southern part of Florida. The Everglades, which consist mainly of swamps, cover the southern part of Florida.

Making Clauses with Words of Time or Place Another way to turn a sentence into a subordinate clause is to add a word that tells time or place. Words that begin this type of clause include after, before, where, wherever, when, whenever, and while. You may need to delete some words to insert the clause into another sentence. ORIGINAL

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Theresa traveled to Rome. She saw the Sistine Chapel. Theresa traveled to Rome, where she saw the Sistine Chapel.

Writing Effective Sentences

People began draining the swamps to make farmland. The Everglades were in danger. When people began draining the swamps to make farmland, the Everglades were in danger.

Exercise 7

Combining Sentences by Using Subordinate Clauses

SENTENCES

Combine each sentence pair by making one sentence into a subordinate clause and attaching it to the other sentence. You may need to cut a word or two from the second sentence. EXAMPLE

1. Mother-of-pearl is a substance made by oysters and other mollusks. Mother-of-pearl is also called nacre ‚ (pronounced n¯¯a k r). (Use which.) 1. Mother-of-pearl, which is also called nacre ‚ (pronounced n¯¯a k r), is a substance made by oysters and other mollusks. Sample revisions follow. e e

1. The pearl is a gem. It is made by certain kinds of mollusks. (Use that.) 2. The finest pearls are produced by mollusks with special shells. Their shells are lined with mother-of-pearl. (Use that.) 3. Pearls are usually formed around particles of sand or dirt. The particles get inside the mollusk. (Use when.) 4. The mollusk’s shell produces cells. The cells attach themselves to a particle. (Use that.) 5. A pearl is formed. The cells cover the particle with motherof-pearl. (Use as.) 6. People culture certain types of pearls. These pearls can be as beautiful as natural pearls. (Use that.) 7. The first cultured pearls were grown in China. Chinese pearl divers discovered that they could put bits of mud, wood, bone, or metal inside a living mollusk. (Use after.) 8. Seed pearls form., It takes about three years for them to grow into full pearls. (Use Once.) 9. Cultured pearls often are grown on boats. Young oysters are raised in barrels. (Use where.) 10. A pearl producer puts spheres of polished mother-of-pearl inside the oysters. The oysters are ready to begin forming beautiful new gems. (Use when.)

Review B

Revising a Paragraph by Combining Sentences

The following paragraph sounds choppy because it has too many short sentences. Use the methods you have learned in this section to combine sentences in the paragraph. A sample revision follows. Combining Sentences

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EXAMPLE

Basketball is an exciting team sport. It is also a popular form of recreation. Basketball is an exciting team sport as well as a popular form of recreation.

SENTENCES

Dr. James Naismith invented the game When of basketball over one hundred years ago., He probably never guessed the sport would become so popular. He just wanted a new game that could be played indoors. The original basketball teams started in 1891. They had nine players instead and of five. The first basket was a peach basket., A player had to climb up and and retrieve the ball after each score. Some parts of the game have stayed the same. Players still cannot hold the ball while they run. They must dribble. Thousands but of teams across the world now play Dr. Naismith’s game.

Improving Sentence Style In addition to combining some sentences, you can also make your writing more effective by revising stringy and wordy sentences to make them shorter and clearer.

Revising Stringy Sentences A stringy sentence is made up of several complete thoughts strung together with words like and or but. Stringy sentences just ramble on and on. They don’t give the reader a chance to pause before new ideas. To fix a stringy sentence, you can • break the sentence into two or more sentences • turn some of the complete thoughts into phrases or subordinate clauses STRINGY Martina climbed the stairs of the haunted house, and she knocked on the door several times, but no one answered, and she braced herself, and then she opened the door.

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REVISED Martina climbed the stairs of the haunted house. She knocked on the door several times, but no one answered. Bracing herself, she opened the door. When you revise a stringy sentence, you may decide to keep and or but between two closely related independent clauses. If you do this, be sure to use a comma before the and or but.

EXAMPLE

Exercise 8

She knocked on the door, but no one answered.

Reference Note For more information on punctuating compound sentences, see page 131.

Revising Stringy Sentences

Some of the following sentences are stringy and need to be improved. First, identify the stringy sentences. Then, revise them by (1) breaking each sentence into two or more sentences or (2) turning some of the complete thoughts into phrases or subordinate clauses. If the sentence is effective and does not need to be improved, write C for correct. Possible revisions follow. EXAMPLE

1. I have a hero; and her name is Mercedes O. Cubría, and she had an interesting career. 1. My hero, Mercedes O. Cubría, had an interesting career.

1. Mercedes O. Cubría was born in Cuba, but her mother died, and she moved to the United States, and she moved with her 1. . When two sisters. 2. After working/ . 2. She worked as a nurse, and then she joined the Women’s Army Corps, and she soon became an officer in the army. 3. Cubría was the first Cuban-born woman to become an offi3. C cer in the U.S. Army. 4. Her job during World War II was to translate important 4. C government papers into a secret code. 5. The war ended, and she was promoted to captain, and later her official rank rose to major. 5. After/ . 6. Then there was the Korean War, and she worked as an intelligence officer, and she studied information about the enemy. 7. Cubría retired from the army in 1953 but was called to duty 6. During/studying again in 1962. 7. C 8. After the Castro revolution, thousands of Cubans fled to the United States, and Cubría interviewed many of these refugees, and she also prepared reports on Cuba. 8. .

HELP As you revise these sentences, keep in mind that there is often more than one correct way to revise a sentence.

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SENTENCES

NOTE

SENTENCES

9. In her spare time, she helped people from Cuba find jobs and housing. 9. C 10. . /where 10. She retired again in 1973, and she settled in Miami, Florida, and she was surrounded by friends and family there.

Revising Wordy Sentences COM P U T E R T I P The grammar-checking option on a computer will often alert you if you have written a sentence that is too long. Review the sentence and see if you can break it into parts or edit out unnecessary words.

Sometimes you use more words in a sentence than you really need. Extra words do not make writing sound better, and, in fact, they can even interfere with your message. Revise wordy sentences in these three ways. 1. Replace a group of words with one word. WORDY REVISED

WORDY REVISED

In a state of exhaustion, Tony slumped across the bus seat and fell asleep. Exhausted, Tony slumped across the bus seat and fell asleep. As a result of what happened when the tire went flat, we were late. Because the tire went flat, we were late.

2. Take out who is, which is, or that is. WORDY REVISED WORDY REVISED

Yesterday I went for a long hike with Sonya, who is my best friend. Yesterday I went for a long hike with Sonya, my best friend. Afterward, we drank some apple juice, which is a good thirst quencher. Afterward, we drank some apple juice, a good thirst quencher.

3. Take out a whole group of unnecessary words. WORDY

REVISED

I spent a lot of time writing this report because I really want people to learn about manatees so they can know all about them. I spent a lot of time writing this report because I want people to learn about manatees.

Exercise 9

Revising Wordy Sentences

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words with one word, (2) take out who is or which is, or (3) take out a whole group of unnecessary words. If a sentence is effective as it is, write C for correct. 1. In order to be able to see the starfish better, I leaned toward the aquarium. 1. To see the starfish better, I leaned toward the aquarium. Here is a sample revision.

SENTENCES

EXAMPLE

1. Our science class has been learning about the starfish, which is a strange and beautiful animal. 2. What I want to say is that starfish are fascinating creatures. 3. A starfish has little feet tipped with suction cups that are powerful. 3. powerful/ . 4. At the end of each arm is a sensitive eyespot. 4. C 5. In spite of the fact that the eyespot cannot really see things, it can tell light from dark. 5. Although 6. The starfish’s mouth is in the middle of its body. 6. C 7. When it uses its arms, it can pull at the shells of clams. 7. Using 8. At the point at which the clam’s shell opens, the starfish can feed on the clam. 8. When 9. Starfish come in a variety of colors, shapes, and sizes, and some are bigger than others. 9. . 10. This photograph shows a blue sea star that is holding onto a soft coral.

Beyond Sentence Style To make your writing the best it can be, you’ll need to look at how your sentences go together. Good writers use a variety of sentence beginnings and a variety of sentence structures to keep readers interested. Good writers also use transitions to show the connections between ideas in a paragraph or other composition. Beyond Sentence Style

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SENTENCES

Varying Sentence Beginnings Basic English sentences begin with a subject followed by a verb, perhaps with a few adjectives and adverbs included. If you use too many basic sentences in a row, your sentences will sound too much the same, and you very likely will bore your reader—even if each separate sentence is itself interesting. Notice how dull the following paragraph sounds. STYLE

TIP

When planning your own writing assignments, save time to edit your composition for style. Many writers revise first for content and organization; then they look at style elements like sentence variety.

Long-distance bicycle tours can be fun. Bicycle tours combine two sports, camping and cycling, into one. Cyclists study maps. The cyclists decide where to go and what to see. They choose to visit places new to them. They load their bicycles with food and equipment. Then they ride off down the highways and back roads. They meet interesting people. Cyclists on bicycle tours may see wildlife such as deer, birds, and even bears!

One good way to avoid boring your reader is to vary sentence beginnings. Instead of starting most sentences with the subject, you can begin some with one-word modifiers, with introductory phrases, or with subordinate clauses. As with many other adventures, long-distance bicycle tours can be fun. Bicycle tours combine two sports, camping and cycling, into one. To decide where to go and what to see, cyclists study maps. Often, they choose to visit places new to them. Happy with their choices, they load their bicycles with food and equipment and ride off down the highways and back roads. On many occasions, they meet interesting people. If they are especially lucky, they see wildlife such as deer, birds, and even bears! 432

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One-Word Modifiers

Suddenly, a noise woke Gwen. [adverb] Rustling, some creature was in the underbrush of the woods. [adjective]

Phrases

After a few minutes, Gwen went back to sleep. [prepositional phrase] Trotting away, a raccoon left the campground with Gwen’s favorite cap. [participial phrase] To keep our caps safe, we should zip them into our packs. [infinitive phrase]

Subordinate Clauses

Since the raccoon took her cap, Gwen thought she would have to buy a new one. [adverb clause] When she went hiking the next day, she found the cap in a nearby creek. [adverb clause]

TIPS

TRICKS

To check your writing for varied sentence beginnings, put parentheses around the first five words of each of your sentences. If most of your subjects and verbs fall within the parentheses, you need to begin more of your sentences with single-word modifiers, phrases, or subordinate clauses.

Exercise 10 Revising a Paragraph to Vary Sentence

Beginnings Rewrite the following paragraph to vary sentence beginnings so that the paragraph is more interesting. You can use one-word modifiers, introductory phrases, or subordinate clauses to begin the sentences, and you can rearrange other words as necessary. EXAMPLE

I enjoy reading. I go to the library often to borrow books. Because I enjoy reading, I go to the library often to borrow books. Here is a sample revision.

Good books are full of great characters. Those characters are really just words on a page, but they certainly seem to be more than that. They can be wonderful friends. These characters are people who entertain us when we are bored. They show us exciting things that we might do with our time. They warn us about the foolish activities we should avoid. They say

Although In fact, or Also, Often, Sometimes,

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SENTENCES

Varying Sentence Beginnings

SENTENCES

, but/also While/, also/In short, Ultimately,

and do things with which we might disagree. They say and do things that we respect. We can get angry with them. We can laugh with them. They share all of the qualities of a good friend. Characters in books sometimes help us know that we are never really alone.

Varying Sentence Structure An important way to keep your readers’ attention is to mix sentences of different lengths and structures. Think like a movie director. If you were making a movie, you would include long, complex scenes; but you would mix those scenes with shorter, simpler scenes to keep your audience’s attention. A movie made up entirely of long scenes or short scenes would be difficult for your audience to follow. Apply the same ideas to your writing. For example, the writer of the following paragraph uses only short, simple sentences. Jim Knaub lost the use of his legs in a motorcycle accident. He did not let that slow him down. He started racing wheelchairs. All the other racers were using standard wheelchairs. Those wheelchairs were not fast enough for Jim. He began to design his own. Soon, his lightweight, ultrafast wheelchair was winning races. He became a well-known wheelchair-racing champion. Jim now designs wheelchairs for others.

Now read the revised paragraph. Notice how the writer has varied the sentence structure to include different sentence lengths and a mixture of simple, compound, and complex sentences.

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HELP When adding variety to sentences in a paragraph, first look for words that are repeated. Sentences with repeated words can often be combined or rewritten to improve the paragraph.

Below is a chart that shows you the four sentence structures. Using a balance of these four structures will help you keep your reader interested in what you have to say. Sentence Structure

Example

simple sentence contains one independent clause

Estivation is somewhat like hibernation.

compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses

Some animals hibernate to protect themselves during cold weather, and others estivate to protect themselves during hot, dry weather.

complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause

When an animal estivates, its breathing and heartbeat slow down.

compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause

Some animals, such as salamanders, form cocoons before they enter estivation; the cocoons help protect them from dehydration.

Reference Note For more help identifying sentence structures, see page 130.

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SENTENCES

When Jim Knaub lost the use of his legs in a motorcycle accident, he did not let that slow him down. He started racing wheelchairs. All the other racers were using standard wheelchairs, but those wheelchairs were not fast enough for Jim. He began to design his own. Soon, his lightweight, ultrafast wheelchair was winning races. He became a well-known wheelchair-racing champion and began to design wheelchairs for others.

Exercise 11

Adding Variety to Sentences

SENTENCES

The following paragraph is uninteresting because it includes only compound sentences. Rewrite the paragraph to include a variety of sentence structures. Mix short, simple sentences; compound sentences; and longer sentences with subordinate clauses in your version. Use variety to keep your audience involved. EXAMPLE

I have an idea, and I think it’s a good one. I have a good idea.

Here is a sample revision.

decided that

My friends and I have been talking, and we have made a decision. We would like a day off, and we could go on a class picnic. We could do it right before winter break, or we could go near the end of the school year. We could each bring a sack lunch, or we could each bring something to share with the rest of the class. The park near the school has picnic tables, and it has playing fields, and a pool. It might seem bad to take a free day, but we work hard the rest of the year. We would enjoy the picnic, and we would have a fun day. We would return to school, and we would with have smiles on our faces.

Review C

Revising a Paragraph by Improving Sentence Style

The following paragraph is hard to read because it contains stringy and wordy sentences. Use the methods you have learned to revise them. Try to use a mix of simple, compound, and complex sentences in your improved version. EXAMPLE

One thing I would like to say is that I saw the movie Anastasia, and I very much enjoyed it. I saw the movie Anastasia, which I very much enjoyed.

A sample revision follows.

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SENTENCES

The movie Anastasia is based on a real story about a real girl from history. Her name was Anastasia Romanov and she was born in 1901 and , who lived in Russia. The movie is about Although some historical events in Russia’s history, and many things in the movie are not true. For example, the movie says that Anastasia was eight years old when the revolutionaries came to overthrew overthrow and defeat her father, who was the czar, but the real Anastasia was a teenager in real life. The movie shows Anastasia and her grandmother, who was the Grand Duchess Marie, escaping together, but in reality her grandmother was already safely in Denmark when the family was seized and captured. Unlike the character in the movie, the real Anastasia did not get away, her remains were found with her family’s remains when they were found in 1991. Although Anastasia is an interesting movie, people who see it should also know the real story that happened.

Using Transitions Imagine that you are reading a passage that is full of clear, complete sentences. Each sentence is itself interesting, and the writer has used a variety of sentence beginnings and a variety of kinds of sentences. However, you can’t tell how the sentences are related to each other. You find yourself re-reading the passage and trying to puzzle out the connections between thoughts. What could be wrong? Chances are, the writer failed to include transitions. Transitional words and phrases help connect ideas. Acting as signposts, they lead readers along, pointing out the relationships between thoughts.

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Transitional Words and Phrases

SENTENCES

also another as a result at last besides consequently eventually finally

first for example for instance furthermore however in fact last mainly

meanwhile moreover on the other hand soon then therefore though thus

Read the following passage, which includes underlined transitional words and phrases. As you read, stop when you get to each underlined transition. Before you read the rest of the sentence, predict what kind of information will be in that sentence. For instance, will the sentence support the one before it? Will it present a contrast? Watch for transitional “signposts” that tell you that the passage is going to keep going straight and for those that tell you the writer is changing direction. Ed and I set out to hike to the peak of the highest ridge. Soon, though, I realized that the blister on my left heel was getting worse. Furthermore, we had waited until afternoon, and the highest ridge was almost two miles away. However, my uncle had told me that the view from the peak was spectacular. I would be leaving on Saturday and might not have this chance again. In fact, Uncle Alex was planning to sell his house and move inland, away from the rocky shore. I decided, therefore, to put a moleskin bandage on my heel and hurry on.

Notice how the transitional words and phrases tell the reader what kind of ideas to expect. When you write, you should include words and phrases like these to guide your reader. Doing so will help you express your ideas more clearly and help you keep the interest of your reader.

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Exercise 12 Identifying Transitional Words and Phrases

EXAMPLE

SENTENCES

The transitional words and phrases in the following paragraph show how the ideas are related to one another. Make a list of the transitions in the paragraph. I found something that I thought was a fossil. Soon, though, I found out that it was just a rock with an unusual shape. Soon, though

Sometimes we can be fooled by the way things look. For instance, earlier in this century, Charles Dawson found a few fossilized fragments of bone inside a gravel formation. The fragments seemed important. Consequently, Dawson took his discovery to a museum. Soon, a museum scientist announced that the fragments might be from a “missing link” between apes and people. As a result of his announcement, other scientists quickly believed that the missing link had been found. In fact, they even gave the new creature a fancy name, Eoanthropus dawsoni. However, they had been taken in by a hoax. Exercise 13 Revising a Paragraph to Show Transitions

The sentences in the following paragraph do not clearly show how one idea is related to another. Rewrite the paragraph, adding appropriate transitions to show how the ideas are related. EXAMPLE

Eager for exciting discoveries, people can be taken in. Experts can be fooled.

Eager for exciting discoveries, people can be taken in. In fact, even experts can be fooled. Here is a possible revision.

Scientists discovered that the bones could not be as old as they seemed. Someone had stained the bones to make them look older than they were. People doubted Of course, whether a missing link had been found. Scientists discovered that the jaw Then and some of the teeth were those of an Further, orangutan. One tooth was from a Beyond Sentence Style

439

SENTENCES

chimpanzee. Someone had filed the teeth to make them look human. No one knows who Today, planned the hoax and hid the bones in the gravel. We do know that almost anyone However, may be fooled by the way things look. Review D

Revising a Passage to Improve Style

Rewrite the following passage to make it clearer and to improve its style. Here are possible revisions. EXAMPLE Carlie and Monica listened to the wind

howl, and they wondered whether the storm would let up soon. Wondering whether the storm would let up soon, Carlie and Monica listened to the wind howl.

ornate, old-fashioned

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The girls had been staying in the old house for nearly a week. They decided when to explore some of the rooms. The rooms were ones that Carlie and Monica hadn’t they explored yet. These rooms were in the west wing. They were closed up. No one , and However,/but used them. The rooms were not empty. They contained very old furniture, which was ornate and old-fashioned. The day was dreary, and it had been raining since dawn, and sometimes lightning flashed and thunder cracked, and the rooms seemed spooky. The girls had a flashlight; Fortunately, with them, and it was good that they did because the power went out when they were about to enter the big, dark study that was at the end of the hall. The room seemed very mysterious and also to be neglected. Due to the fact that the power With was out and the room was dark, Carlie and Monica were nervous. They stood in the As hallway and looked inside. The storm out, side grew more fierce. Lightning flared and lit up the room. Thunder roared. , and , The wind rattled the windows. It also howling made a howling sound. The girls looked at each other. They each took a deep breath., and , They stepped into the room.

Writing Effective Sentences

CHAPTER

Chapter Review A. Identifying Sentences, Sentence Fragments, and Run-ons Terms in brackets refer to concepts tested by the items in the Chapter Review. 1. was [fragment] 2. I haven’t seen her [fragment] 3. sentence [sentence] 4. [run-on] 5. Marcia [fragment] 6. is [fragment] 7. [fragment] 8. ; [run-on] 9. sentence [sentence] 10. and [run-on]

Identify each of the following word groups as a sentence, a sentence fragment, or a run-on sentence. If a word group is a sentence fragment, rewrite it to make a complete sentence. If a word group is a run-on sentence, rewrite it to make it one or more complete sentences. Here are possible revisions. 1. The morning spent at the dentist. 2. Since sometime near the beginning of last week. 3. I should stay home and help with the yard work. 4. Turn left at the convenience store the library will be on your left. 5. Said not to worry about the change to the schedule. 6. The goat standing on top of John’s car and chewing on your hat. 7. Because I want you to meet my cousin Ari. 8. The boat sailed at noon, however, the first mate was not aboard. 9. My computer was not working well, so I restarted it. 10. We cleaned the house, we raked the yard.

B. Combining Sentences

11. for [inserting phrases] 12. because [complex sentence] 13. [appositive phrase]

Each of the following items contains two complete sentences. Combine these sentences to make a single sentence that is clear and interesting. To combine the sentences, you can add or delete words, insert words or phrases, or use compound or complex sentences. Here are possible revisions. 11. I will send Terry a thank-you note. I appreciated her help last weekend. 12. The roses need to be pruned. They are overgrown and scraggly. 13. Aunt Sally, is my father’s oldest sister., She visited us last September.

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SENTENCES

14. [inserting phrases] 15. and [compound verb]

14. Dr. Severson bought a bouquet of daisies. They are for his wife. 15. The horse that she was riding can run like the wind. It can also leap over fences and hedges.

C. Revising a Passage to Correct Errors and Improve Style Using the skills you have learned throughout this chapter, revise the following paragraph. Be sure to correct sentence fragments and run-ons, to combine sentences where appropriate, to improve stringy and wordy sentences, and to vary your sentences. A possible revision follows. and but For instance,

of a large circle a mark with across the ice

, is worth a point Again, By sliding stones in front of the tee,

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We know about hockey and ice-skating. , , Even about ice-fishing. They are fun. , There are other sports people can play on ice these sports are just as enjoyable. There is the game of curling. Curling is played on frozen lakes or on ice rinks. It is a little bit like lawn bowling, and there are two teams, and each team has four players. There is a large circle on the ice and it is called the “house”; and there is a mark in the middle of the circle and it is called the “tee.” The players slide round stones across the ice the stones have slightly curved bottoms and handles. The object of the game is for players to slide their stones into the house. Close to the tee. A player on , each team slides two stones toward the tee. Only one of the stones is worth a point, it is the stone closest to the tee. The next players on the two teams slide their stones toward the tee. The stone that is closest to the tee is worth one point. Players can use their stones

Writing Effective Sentences

SENTENCES

to block their opponents from scoring. Because they can slide stones in front of the tee. They also use brushes or brooms in order to sweep away particles of ice or snow in the path of an oncoming stone and also so that the stone can slide across the ice more easily.

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CHAPTER

Sentence Diagramming The Sentence Diagram A sentence diagram is a picture of how the parts of a sentence fit together. It shows how the words in the sentence are related.

Subjects and Verbs To diagram a sentence, first find the simple subject and the simple predicate, or verb, and write them on a horizontal line. Then, separate the subject and verb with a vertical line. Keep the capital letters, but leave out the punctuation marks, except in cases such as Mr. and July 1, 1999.

Reference Note For information on subjects and verbs, see page 5.

EXAMPLE

Horses gallop. Horses

Reference Note For information on questions, see page 19.

Questions To diagram a question, first make the question into a statement. Then, diagram the sentence. Remember that in a diagram the subject always comes first, even if it does not come first in the sentence. EXAMPLE

Are you going? you

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Sentence Diagramming

Are going

The previous examples are easy because each sentence contains only a simple subject and a verb. Now, look at a longer sentence. EXAMPLE

One quiet, always popular pet is the goldfish.

Step 1:

Separate the complete subject from the complete predicate. complete predicate is the goldfish.

complete subject One quiet, always popular pet

Step 2:

Find the simple subject and the verb. simple subject pet

Step 3:

SENTENCES

To diagram the simple subject and verb of this sentence, follow these steps.

verb is

Draw the diagram. pet

Understood Subjects To diagram an imperative sentence, place the understood subject you in parentheses on the horizontal line. EXAMPLE

Clean your room. (you)

For information on understood subjects, see page 19.

Clean

Diagramming Simple Subjects and Verbs

Exercise 1

Diagram only the simple subject and verb in each of the following sentences. EXAMPLE

Reference Note

1. Gwendolyn Brooks was the poet laureate of Illinois. 1.

Gwendolyn Brooks

HELP Remember that simple subjects and verbs may consist of more than one word.

was

1. Angela just returned from Puerto Rico. 2. She was studying Spanish in San Juan. 3. Listen to her stories about her host family. The Sentence Diagram

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SENTENCES

4. She really enjoyed the year. 5. Have you ever been to Puerto Rico?

Reference Note For information on compound subjects, see page 13. For information on conjunctions, see page 62.

Compound Subjects To diagram a compound subject, put the subjects on parallel lines. Then, put the connecting word (the conjunction) on a dotted line that joins the subject lines. EXAMPLE

Sharks and eels can be dangerous. Sharks and

can be

eels

Reference Note For information on compound verbs, see page 15.

Compound Verbs To diagram a compound verb, put the two verbs on parallel lines. Then, put the connecting word (the conjunction) on a dotted line that joins the verb lines. EXAMPLE

The cowboy swung into the saddle and rode away. swung and

cowboy

rode

This is how a compound verb is diagrammed when it has a helping verb that is not repeated. EXAMPLE

Ray Bradbury has written many books and received several prizes for them. written has

and

Ray Bradbury

received

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EXAMPLE

Rosa Parks and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., saw a problem and did something about it. Rosa Parks

Reference Note For information on using compound subjects with compound verbs, see page 15.

saw and

and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

did

Sometimes parts of a compound subject or a compound verb are joined by correlative conjunctions, such as both . . . and. Correlatives are diagrammed like this: EXAMPLE

Both Luisa and Miguel can sing. Luisa Both

and

can sing

Miguel

Exercise 2

Diagramming Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs

Diagram the simple subjects and the verbs in the following sentences. Include the conjunctions that join the compound subjects or the compound verbs. 1. Both LeAnn Rimes and Clint Black are going on tour and cutting new albums. 1. LeAnn Rimes

going and

and

Both

Clint Black

are

PEANUTS rep rinted by perm iss United Featur e Syndicate, Inc ion of .

EXAMPLE

cutting

1. Everyone knows and likes Mr. Karras. 2. Hurricanes and tornadoes occur most often during the summer. 3. Julio and Rosa were cutting paper and tying string for the kites. The Sentence Diagram

447

SENTENCES

Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs A sentence with both a compound subject and a compound verb combines the patterns for each.

SENTENCES

4. Both Jade Snow Wong and Amy Tan have written books about their childhoods in San Francisco’s Chinatown. 5. Elena and I grabbed our jackets and took the bus to the mall.

Adjectives and Adverbs Reference Note For information on possessive pronouns, see page 30.

Adjectives and adverbs are written on slanted lines connected to the words they modify. Notice that possessive pronouns are diagrammed in the same way adjectives are.

Adjectives Reference Note

EXAMPLES

dark room

For information on adjectives, see page 34.

a lively fish

my best friend

fish

room

friend y

st be

liv

rk da

Diagramming Sentences with Adjectives

Exercise 3

Diagram the subjects, the verbs, and the adjectives that modify the subjects in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. A huge silver spaceship landed in the field. spaceship

landed r

sil

1. The action movie will soon begin. 2. The soft, silky kitten played with a shoelace. 3. A tall, redheaded woman walked into the room. 4. A talkative horse starred in that popular TV show. 5. A weird green light shone under the door.

Adverbs

Reference Note For information on adverbs, see page 54.

EXAMPLES

walks briskly walks

arrived te

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r he

isk

448

arrived here late

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it is placed on a line connected to the word it modifies. a very happy child

drove rather slowly

child

drove ly w r slo the ra

y pp ha ry ve

SENTENCES

EXAMPLES

This extremely rare record will almost certainly cost a great deal. will cost

record

em tr

y nl ai rt t ce os m al

re ra ex

is Th

Conjunctions and Modifiers When a modifier applies to only one part of a compound subject or compound verb, it is diagrammed like this: EXAMPLE

Benjamin Davis, Sr., and his son worked hard and rose quickly through the military. worked

Benjamin Davis, Sr.

Reference Note For information on conjunctions, see page 62. For information on modifiers, see Chapter 11.

and

rose

son

qu ly ick

A conjunction joining two modifiers is diagrammed like this: EXAMPLE

The English and American musicians played slowly and quite beautifully. musicians

and ly ul tif au te i

slo

n ica

is gl

er Am

and

played

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Exercise 4

Diagramming Sentences with Adjectives and Adverbs

SENTENCES

Diagram the subjects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and conjunctions in the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. A relatively unknown candidate won the election easily and rather cheaply. 1.

won

candidate A

y pl ea er ch th ra

y sil

l re

n ow ely iv kn at un

and

1. The determined young Frederick Douglass certainly worked hard. 2. The talented actress spoke loudly and clearly. 3. Mei-Ling and her younger sister will arrive early tomorrow. 4. The best musicians always play here. 5. That glue does not work very well.

Objects

Reference Note For information on objects, see Chapter 4.

Reference Note For information on direct objects, see page 74.

Direct Objects A direct object is diagrammed on the horizontal line with the subject and verb. A vertical line separates the direct object from the verb. Notice that this vertical line does not cross the horizontal line. EXAMPLES

We like pizza. We

pizza

The robin caught a worm. robin

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worm a

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caught

Compound Direct Objects Lizards eat flies and earthworms.

Reference Note For information on compound direct objects, see page 75.

flies eat

and

Lizards

SENTENCES

EXAMPLE

earthworms

Indirect Objects An indirect object is diagrammed on a horizontal line beneath the verb. The verb and the indirect object are joined by a slanting line that extends past the lower horizontal line. EXAMPLE

Marisol brought me a piñata. Marisol

Reference Note For information on indirect objects, see page 76.

piñata

brought

Compound Indirect Objects EXAMPLE

Tanya gave the singer and the dancer cues. Tanya

gave

Reference Note For information on compound indirect objects, see page 77.

cues singer e th

and

dancer e th

Exercise 5

Diagramming Direct and Indirect Objects

Diagram the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. I gave the clerk a dollar. 1.

gave

dollar a

clerk e th The Sentence Diagram

451

SENTENCES

1. Kim drew a quick sketch. 2. He sent the American Red Cross and Goodwill Industries his extra clothes. 3. My aunt knitted Violet and me sweaters. 4. Gerardo and Wendie are organizing the play and the refreshments. 5. Several businesses bought our school new computers.

Subject Complements Reference Note For information on subject complements, see page 79.

A subject complement is diagrammed on the horizontal line with the subject and the verb. It comes after the verb. A line slanting toward the verb separates the subject complement from the verb.

Predicate Nominatives

Reference Note For information on predicate nominatives, see page 79.

EXAMPLES

Mariah Carey is a famous singer. Mariah Carey

singer

That bird is a female cardinal. bird

cardinal m

e al

a Th

Compound Predicate Nominatives EXAMPLE

Clara is a student and a volunteer nurse. student a

and

Clara

nurse

r ee

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Predicate Adjectives She was extremely nice. She

was

Reference Note For information on predicate adjectives, see page 81.

nice em tr ex el y

This juice tastes great. juice

tastes

great

is Th

Compound Predicate Adjectives EXAMPLE

We were tired but very happy. tired were

but

happy ry

Diagramming Sentences

Exercise 6

Diagram the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. The snake is large and shiny. 1.

large is

and

snake e Th

shiny

1. Turtles are reptiles. 2. Their tough beaks look sharp and strong. 3. Turtles may grow very old. 4. The alligator snapper is the largest freshwater turtle. 5. Few turtles are dangerous.

The Sentence Diagram

453

SENTENCES

EXAMPLES

Phrases

SENTENCES

Reference Note For information on prepositional phrases, see page 90.

Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase is diagrammed below the word it modifies. Write the preposition on a slanting line below the modified word. Then, write the object of the preposition on a horizontal line connected to the slanting line. Adjective Phrases EXAMPLES

Reference Note

traditions of the Sioux

For information on adjective phrases, see page 92.

traditions of

Sioux e th

gifts from Nadine and Chip gifts

Nadine and

Chip

Adverb Phrases Reference Note

EXAMPLES

For information on adverb phrases, see page 94.

a face bright with good cheer face br

ig ith w

cheer od

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search for the gerbil and the hamster gerbil

e th

r fo

SENTENCES

and hamster e th

Two prepositional phrases may modify the same word. EXAMPLE

The tour extends across the country and around the world. tour

extends

e Th

and

ou ar

country

world e th

e th

When a prepositional phrase modifies the object of another preposition, the diagram looks like this: EXAMPLE

Richard Wright wrote one of the books on that subject.

Richard Wright

wrote

one of

books on

e th

subject at th

Diagramming Sentences with Prepositional Phrases

Exercise 7

Diagram the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Our team practices in the afternoon. 1.

practices in

ur O

team

afternoon e th The Sentence Diagram

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SENTENCES

1. The scientist worked into the night. 2. A play about Cleopatra will be performed tonight. 3. Leroy practices with his band and by himself. 4. Garth Brooks has written songs about love and freedom. 5. The director of that movie about the Civil War was chosen for an Academy Award.

Verbals and Verbal Phrases Reference Note For information on verbals and verbal phrases, see page 98.

Participles and Participial Phrases Participles are diagrammed much as other adjectives are, but the participle curves onto a horizontal line. EXAMPLE

Juan helped the wailing child. Juan

helped

child w

e th

l ing

Participial phrases are diagrammed as follows:

Reference Note For information on participles and participial phrases, see pages 98 and 100.

EXAMPLE

Seeing the new employee, Sandy waved. Sandy waved Se

employee w

Notice that the participle has a direct object (the new employee), which is diagrammed in the same way that the direct object of a verb is. Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases EXAMPLES

To act is her dream. [infinitive used as subject] To

act is

dream r he

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He was the first one to finish the race. [infinitive phrase used as adjective] one to

st fir

e th

finish race e th

SENTENCES

He was

Would you like to leave early? [infinitive phrase used as direct object] to

leave ea rly

you

Would like

He hurried to help us. [infinitive phrase used as adverb] He

hurried to

help

Appositives and Appositive Phrases To diagram an appositive or appositive phrase, write the appositive in parentheses after the word it identifies. EXAMPLES My brother Dan is an accountant. brother (Dan)

Reference Note For information on appositives and appositive phrases, see page 106.

accountant

Samuel Johnson, the British writer, wrote an English dictionary. Samuel Johnson (writer)

wrote

ish gl

s iti Br e th

Exercise 8

dictionary

Diagramming Sentences That Contain Verbal and Appositive Phrases

Diagram the following sentences. The Sentence Diagram

457

EXAMPLE

1. She saw them riding bicycles. 1.

She

saw

them ri d

SENTENCES

bicycles

1. To win was Reginald’s goal. 2. The drifting snow blocked the road. 3. The person to ask is Lecia. 4. Hearing the announcement, I looked up. 5. Kris, my good friend, will help.

Subordinate Clauses

Reference Note For information on subordinate clauses, see page 114. Reference Note For information on adjective clauses, see page 117.

Adjective Clauses Diagram an adjective clause by connecting it with a broken line to the word it modifies. Draw the broken line between the relative pronoun and the word to which it relates. NOTE

The words who, whom, whose, which, and that are relative pronouns.

Reference Note

An adjective clause is diagrammed below the independent clause.

For information on relative pronouns, see page 118.

EXAMPLE

The students whose projects are selected will attend the regional contest. students

will attend

contest al on gi re

e th

e Th

projects

are selected

se ho w

Reference Note For information on adverb clauses, see page 120.

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Adverb Clauses Diagram an adverb clause by using a broken line to connect the adverb clause to the word it modifies. Place the subordinating conjunction that introduces the adverb clause on the broken line.

Sentence Diagramming

NOTE

The adverb clause is diagrammed below the independent clause. EXAMPLE

If I study for two more hours, I will finish my homework. I

will finish

Reference Note For information on subordinating conjunctions, see page 121.

homework y m

study r fo

hours e or m

o tw

Diagramming Sentences with Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses

Exercise 9

Diagram the following sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Will you stop by my house after you go to the library? 1.

you

Will stop by

y m

after

you

house

go to

library e th

1. Most proverbs are sayings that give advice. 2. Because the day was very hot, the cool water felt good. 3. If it does not rain tomorrow, we will visit Crater Lake. 4. Janice and Linda found some empty seats as the movie started. 5. The problem that worries us now is the pollution of underground sources of water. The Sentence Diagram

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SENTENCES

The words after, because, if, since, unless, when, and while are common subordinating conjunctions.

The Kinds of Sentence Structure

Reference Note

Simple Sentences EXAMPLE

Ray showed us his new bike. [one independent clause] Ray

Reference Note

showed

For information on compound sentences, see page 131.

Reference Note

For information on simple sentences, see page 130.

bike hi

SENTENCES

For information on the kinds of sentence structure, see Chapter 7.

Compound Sentences The second independent clause in a compound sentence is diagrammed below the first and usually is joined to it by a coordinating conjunction. A dotted line joins the clauses. The line is drawn between the verbs of the two clauses, and the conjunction is written on a solid horizontal line connecting the two parts of the dotted line. EXAMPLE

Ossie Davis wrote the play, and Ruby Dee starred in it. [two independent clauses] wrote

Ossie Davis

play e th

and Ruby Dee

starred in

Exercise 10 Diagramming Compound Sentences

Diagram the following compound sentences. EXAMPLE

1. Lucas likes that new CD, but I have not heard it. 1.

Lucas

likes

have heard

w ne

at th

but

t no

1. We went to the mall, and everyone had a good time. 2. Do you like basketball, or do you prefer hockey? 460

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SENTENCES

3. Luis Alvarez was an atomic scientist, but his son became a geologist. 4. Miriam celebrates Hanukkah, and she told our class about the holiday. 5. Sammy Sosa is my baseball hero, but my sister prefers Randy Johnson.

Complex Sentences EXAMPLE

Cheryl has a carving that was made in Nigeria. [one independent clause and one subordinate clause] Cheryl

has

carving

Reference Note For information on complex sentences, see page 135.

was made in Nigeria

that

Exercise 11

Diagramming Complex Sentences

Diagram the following complex sentences. EXAMPLE

1. If you see Lola, you can give her this book. 1.

you

can give

see

her

is th

you

book

Lola

1. Valentina Tereshkova was the first woman who flew in space. 2. Because my cousins live in Toledo, they took a plane to the wedding. 3. Although Wilma Rudolph had been a very sick child, she became a top Olympic athlete.

The Sentence Diagram

461

Compound-Complex Sentences EXAMPLES

Reference Note For information on compound-complex sentences, see page 137.

Soon-Yee, whose father is a sculptor, studies art, but Mi-Kyung prefers the violin. [two independent clauses and one subordinate clause] Soon-Yee

studies

art but

father

sculptor a

se ho w

Mi-Kyung

prefers

violin e th

After the raccoon had fallen from the tree, it looked injured, so we called the Humane Society. it

looked

injured

A ft er

SENTENCES

4. All three of the children screamed as the roller coaster began its descent. 5. The amusement park that we like best offers two free rides to frequent customers.

raccoon

had fallen

e th

om fr

tree e th

called

Humane Society e th

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Exercise 12

Diagramming Compound-Complex Sentences

Diagram the following compound-complex sentences. 1. I smiled when I saw Wendell, and Mike waved.

SENTENCES

EXAMPLES

smiled w he n

and

I Mike

saw

Wendell

waved

2. The room that Carla painted had been white, but she changed the color.

room

had been

e Th

Carla

painted

white

but that she

changed

color th e

1. We have a game that we bought in Korea, but we do not understand the instructions. 2. Mariella wanted frozen yogurt after she won the tennis match, but Hector and I wanted sandwiches and milk. 3. When I returned to the store, the blue backpack had been sold, so I bought the green one. 4. The restaurant that we like best serves excellent seafood, and the chef has won many awards. 5. Before we conduct the experiment, we should ask for permission from the principal, and we should prepare the science lab.

The Sentence Diagram

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PART

Resources

The History of English Test Smarts Grammar at a Glance

GO TO: go.hrw.com

Resources

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Resources

The History of English Origins and Uses A Changing Language No one knows exactly when or how English got started. We do know that English and many other modern-day languages come from an early language that was spoken thousands of years ago. The related languages still resemble that parent language. For example, notice how similar the words for mother are in the following modern-day languages. ENGLISH mother SPANISH madre SWEDISH moder

FRENCH mère ITALIAN madre

Over 1,500 years ago, a few small tribes of people invaded the island that is now Britain. These tribes, called the Angles and Saxons, spoke the earliest known form of English, called Old English. Old English was very different from the English we speak. English continued to evolve through a form known as Middle English. While the English language has always changed and grown, 466

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some of its most basic words have been around since the very beginning. EARLY WORD hand dohtor

andswaru hleapan

PRESENT-DAY WORD hand daughter answer

leap

Changes in Meaning It may be hard to believe that the word bead once meant “prayer.” Many English words have changed meaning over time. Some of these changes have been slight. Others have been more obvious. Below are a few examples of words that have changed their meanings. naughty—In the 1300s, naughty meant “poor or needy.” In the 1600s, the meaning changed to “poorly behaved.” lunch—In the 1500s, a lunch was a large chunk of something, such as bread or meat. caboose—Caboose entered the English language in the 1700s when it meant “the kitchen of a ship.”

Even today the meanings of words may vary depending on where they are used. For example, in the United States a boot is a type of shoe, but in Great Britain, a boot may refer to the trunk of a car.

EARLY SPELLING jaile locian

slæp

tima

PRESENT-DAY SPELLING jail look sleep

time

Changes in Pronunciation and Spelling If you traveled back in time a few hundred years, you would probably have a hard time understanding spoken and written English. ■ Changes

in pronunciation English

words used to be pronounced differently from the way they are pronounced today. For example, in the 1200s, people pronounced bite like beet and feet like fate. They also pronounced the vowel sound in the word load like the word awe. You may have wondered why English words are not always spelled as they sound. Changes in pronunciation help account for many strange spellings in English. For example, the w that starts the word write was not always silent. Even after the w sound that started the word write was dropped, the spelling stayed the same. The g in gnat and the k in knee were once part of the pronunciations of the words, too. ■ Changes

in spelling The spellings

of many words have changed over time. Some changes in spelling have been accidental. For example, apron used to be spelled napron. People mistakenly attached the n to the article a, and a napron became an apron. Here are some more examples of present-day English words and their early spellings.

vs. American spelling and pronunciation Pronunciations and

spellings still vary today. For instance, the English used in Great Britain differs from the English used in the United States. In Great Britain, people pronounce bath with the vowel sound of father instead of the vowel sound of cat. The British also tend to drop the r sound at the end of words like copper. In addition, the British spell some words differently from the way people in the United States do. AMERICAN SPELLING theater pajamas labor BRITISH SPELLING theatre pyjamas

labour

Word Origins English grows and changes along with the people who use it. New words must be created for new inventions, places, or ideas. Sometimes, people borrow words from other languages to create a new English word. Other times, people use the names of people or places as new words. ■ Borrowed words

As English-speaking people came into contact with people from other cultures and lands, they began to borrow words. English has borrowed hundreds of thousands of words from French, Hindi, Spanish, African languages, and many other Origins and Uses

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RESOURCES

■ British

languages spoken around the world. In many cases, the borrowed words have taken new forms. FRENCH ange ENGLISH angel

HINDI champo ENGLISH shampoo

KIMBUNDU mbanza ENGLISH banjo

SPANISH patata ENGLISH potato

from names Many things get their names from the names of people or places. For example, in the 1920s, someone in Bridgeport, Connecticut, discovered a new use for the pie plates from the Frisbie Bakery. He turned one upside down and sent it floating through the air. The new game sparked the idea for the flying disk of today.

RESOURCES

■ Words

Dialects of American English You probably know some people who speak English differently from the way you do. Different groups of people use different varieties of English. The kind of English we speak sounds most normal to us even though it may sound unusual to someone else. The form of English a particular group of people speaks is called a dialect. Everyone uses a dialect, and no dialect is better or worse than another. Ethnic Dialects Your cultural background can make a difference in the way you speak. A dialect shared by people from the same cultural group is called an ethnic dialect. Because Americans come from many cultures, American English includes many ethnic dialects. One of the largest ethnic dialects is the Black English 468

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spoken by many African Americans. Another is the Hispanic English of many people whose families come from places such as Mexico, Central America, or Cuba. Regional Dialects Do you make the bed or make up the bed? Would you order a sub with the woiks or a hero with the werks ? In the evening, do you eat supper or dinner ? How you answer these questions is probably influenced by where you live. A dialect shared by people from the same area is called a regional dialect. Your regional dialect helps determine what words you use, how you pronounce words, and how you put words together. Not everyone from a particular group speaks that group’s dialect. Also, an ethnic or regional dialect may vary depending on the speaker’s individual background and place of origin.

Standard American English Every dialect is useful and helps keep the English language colorful and interesting. However, sometimes it is confusing to try to communicate using two different dialects. Therefore, it is important to be familiar with standard American English. Standard English is the most commonly understood variety of English. You can find some of the rules for using standard English in this textbook. Language that does not follow these rules and guidelines is called nonstandard English. Nonstandard English is considered inappropriate in many formal situations.

STANDARD I don’t want any more spinach. NONSTANDARD Jimmy was fixing to go hiking with us. STANDARD Jimmy was about to go hiking with us.

Formal and Informal Read the following sentences. Many of my friends are excited about the game. A bunch of my friends are psyched about the game.

Both sentences mean the same thing, but they have different effects. The first sentence is an example of formal English, and the second sentence is an example of informal English. Formal and informal English are each appropriate for different situations. For instance, you would probably use the formal example if you were talking to a teacher about the game. If you were talking to a friend, however, the second sentence might sound natural. Formal English is frequently used in news reports and in schools and businesses. ■ Colloquialisms

Informal English includes many words and expressions

that are not appropriate in more formal situations. The most widely used informal expressions are colloquialisms. Colloquialisms are colorful words and phrases of everyday conversation. Many colloquialisms have meanings that are different from the basic meanings of words. EXAMPLES I wish Gerald would get off my case. Don’t get all bent out of shape about it. We were about to bust with laughter. ■ Slang

Slang words are made-up words or old words used in new ways. Slang is highly informal language. It is usually created by a particular group of people, such as students or people who hold a particular job, like computer technicians or artists. Often, slang is familiar only to the groups that invent it. Sometimes slang words become a lasting part of the English language. Usually, though, slang falls out of style quickly. The slang words in the sentences below will probably seem out of date to you. That was a really far-out flick. Those are some groovy duds you’re wearing. I don’t have enough dough to buy a movie ticket.

Origins and Uses

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NONSTANDARD I don’t want no more spinach.

Resources

Test Smarts Taking Standardized Tests in Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics

Becoming “Test-Smart” Standardized achievement tests, like other tests, measure your skills in specific areas. Standardized achievement tests also compare your performance to the performance of other students at your age or grade level. Some language arts standardized tests measure your skill in using correct capitalization, punctuation, sentence structure, and spelling. Such tests sometimes also measure your ability to evaluate sentence style. The most important part of preparing for any test, including standardized tests, is learning the content on which you will be tested. To do this, you must ■ ■ ■

470

listen in class complete homework assignments study to master the concepts and skills presented by your teacher Resources

Test Smarts

In addition, you also need to use effective strategies for taking a standardized test. The following pages will teach you how to become test-smart.

General Strategies for Taking Tests 1. Understand how the test is scored. If no points will be taken off for wrong answers, plan to answer every question. If wrong answers count against you, plan to answer only questions you know the answer to or questions you can answer with an educated guess.

2. Stay focused. Expect to be a little nervous, but focus your attention on doing the best job possible. Try not to be distracted with thoughts that aren’t about the test questions.

9. Check your work. If you have time at the end of the test, go back to check your answers. This is also the time to try to answer any questions you skipped. Make sure your marks are complete, and erase any stray marks on the answer sheet.

entire test to get an idea of how long the test is and what is on it.

4. Pace yourself. Based on your overview, figure out how much time to allow for each section of the test. If time limits are stated for each section, decide how much time to allow for each item. Pace yourself, and check every five to ten minutes to see if you need to work faster. Try to leave a few minutes at the end of the testing period to check your work.

5. Read all instructions. Read the instructions for each part of the test carefully. Also, answer the sample questions to be sure you understand how to answer the test questions.

6. Read all answer choices. Carefully read all of the possible answers before you choose an answer. Note how each possible answer differs from the others. You may want to make an x next to each answer choice that you rule out.

7. Make educated guesses. If you do not know the answer to a question, see if you can rule out one or more answers and make an educated guess. Don’t spend too much time on any one item, though. If you want to think longer about a difficult item, make a light pencil mark next to the item number. You can go back to that question later.

8. Mark your answers. Mark the answer sheet carefully and completely. If you plan to go back to an item later, be sure to skip that number on the answer sheet.

Strategies for Answering Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics Questions RESOURCES

3. Get an overview. Quickly skim the

The questions in standardized tests can take different forms, but the most common form is the multiple-choice question. Here are some strategies for answering that kind of test question. Correcting parts of sentences One kind of question contains a sentence with an underlined part. The answer choices show several revised versions of that part. Your job is to decide which revised version makes the sentence correct or whether the underlined part is already correct. First, look at each answer carefully. Immediately rule out any answer in which you notice a grammatical error. If you are still unsure of the correct answer, try approaching the question in one of these two ways. ■

Think how you would rewrite the underlined part. Look at the answer choices for one that matches your revision. Carefully read each possible answer before you make your final choice. Often, only tiny differences exist between the answers, and you want to choose the best answer. Test Smarts

471

Look carefully at the underlined part and at each answer choice, looking for one particular type of error, such as an error in capitalization or spelling. The best way to look for a particular error is to compare the answer choices to see how they differ both from each other and from the underlined part of the question. For example, if there are differences in capitalization, look at each choice for capitalization errors. After ruling out incorrect answers, choose the answer with no errors. If there are errors in each of the choices but no errors in the underlined part, your answer will be the “no error” or “correct as is” choice.

RESOURCES

■

EXAMPLE Directions: Choose the answer that is the best revision of the underlined words. 1. My neighbor is painting his house and my brother helped him. A. house; and my brother is helping him. B. house, and my brother had helped him. C. house, and my brother is helping him. D. Correct as is

Explanation: In the example above, the possible answers contain differences in punctuation and in verb tense. Therefore, you should check each possible answer for errors in punctuation and verb tense. A. You can rule out this choice because it has incorrect punctuation. B. This choice creates inconsistent verb tenses, so you can rule out this answer. C. This choice has correct punctuation and creates consistent verb tenses. D. You can rule out this choice because the original sentence lacks correct 472

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punctuation between the clauses. Answer: Choice C is the only one that contains no errors, so the oval for that answer choice is darkened.

Correcting whole sentences This type of question is similar to the kind of question previously described. However, here you are looking for mistakes in the entire sentence instead of just an underlined part. The strategies for approaching this type of question are the same as for the other kind of sentence-correction questions. If you don’t see the correct answer right away, compare the answer choices to see how they differ. When you find differences, check each choice for errors relating to that difference. Rule out choices with errors. Repeat the process until you find the correct answer. EXAMPLE Directions: Choose the answer that is the best revision of the following sentences. 1. After Brad mowed the lawn, he swept the sidewalk and driveway, then he took a shower. And washed his hair. A. After Brad mowed the lawn, he swept the sidewalk and driveway. Then he took a shower and washed his hair. B. After Brad mowed the lawn, he swept the sidewalk and driveway. Then he took a shower, and washed his hair. C. After Brad mowed the lawn. He swept the sidewalk and driveway; then he took a shower and washed his hair. D. Correct as is

Identifying kinds of errors This type of question has at least one underlined part. Your job is to determine which part, if any, contains an error. Sometimes, you also may have to decide what type of error (capitalization, punctuation, or spelling) exists. The strategy is the same whether the question has one or several underlined parts. Try to identify an error, and check the answer choices for that type of error. If the original version is correct as written, choose “no error” or “correct as is.” EXAMPLE Directions: Read the following sentences and decide which type of error, if any, is in the underlined part. 1. Marcia, Jim, and Leroy are participating in Saturday’s charity marathon. they are hoping to raise one hundred dollars for the new children’s museum.

A. B. C. D.

Spelling error Capitalization error Punctuation error Correct as is

Explanation: If you cannot tell right away what kind of error (if any) is in the original version, go through each answer choice in turn. A. All the words are spelled correctly. B. The sentences contain a capitalization error. The second sentence incorrectly begins with a lowercase letter. C. The sentences are punctuated correctly. D. The sentences contain a capitalization error, so you can rule out this choice. Answer: Because the passage contains a capitalization error, the oval for answer choice B is darkened.

Revising sentence structure Errors covered by this kind of question include sentence fragments, run-on sentences, repetitive wording, misplaced modifiers, and awkward construction. If you don’t immediately spot the error, examine the question and each answer choice for specific types of errors, one type at a time. If you cannot find an error in the original version and if all of the other answer choices have errors, then choose “no error” or “correct as is.” EXAMPLE Directions: Read the following word groups. If there is an error in sentence structure, choose the answer that best revises the word groups. Test Smarts

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Explanation: The original word groups and answer choices have differences in sentence structure and punctuation, so you should check each answer choice for errors in sentence structure and punctuation. A. This choice contains two complete sentences and correct punctuation. B. This choice contains two complete sentences and incorrect punctuation. C. This choice begins with a sentence fragment, so you can rule it out. D. You can rule out this choice because the original version contains a sentence fragment. Answer: Choice A is the only one that contains no errors, so the oval for that answer choice is darkened.

RESOURCES

1. Mary Lou arranged the mozzarella cheese and fresh tomatoes. On a platter covered with lettuce leaves. A. Mary Lou arranged the mozzarella cheese and fresh tomatoes on a platter covered with lettuce leaves. B. Mary Lou arranged the mozzarella cheese and fresh tomatoes, on a platter covered with lettuce leaves. C. Mary Lou arranged the mozzarella cheese and fresh tomatoes; on a platter covered with lettuce leaves. D. Correct as is

Explanation: The original sentence and answer choices have differences in sentence structure and punctuation. A. This choice is correctly punctuated and contains a correct, complete sentence. B. This choice contains an incorrect comma, so you can rule it out. C. This choice contains an incorrect semicolon, so you can rule it out. D. The original word groups contain a sentence fragment, so D cannot be correct. Answer: Choice A is the only one that contains no errors, so the oval for that answer choice is darkened.

Questions about sentence style These questions are often not about grammar, usage, or mechanics but about content and organization. They may ask about tone, purpose, topic sentences, supporting sentences, audience, sentence combining, appropriateness of content, or transitions. The questions may ask you which is the best way to revise the passage, 474

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or they may ask you to identify the main purpose of the passage. When you see words such as best, main, and most likely or least likely, you are not being asked to correct errors; you are being asked to make a judgment about style or meaning. If the question asks for a particular kind of revision (for example, “What transition is needed between sentence 4 and sentence 5?”), analyze each answer choice to see how well it makes that particular revision. Many questions ask for a general revision (for example, “Which is the best way to revise the last sentence?”). In such situations, check each answer choice and rule out any choices that have mistakes in grammar, usage, or mechanics. Then, read each choice and use what you have learned in class to judge whether the revision improves the original sentence. If you are combining sentences, be sure to choose the answer that includes all important information, that demonstrates good style, and that is grammatically correct. EXAMPLE Directions: Choose the answer that shows the best way to combine the following sentences. 1. Jacques Cousteau was a filmmaker and author. Jacques Cousteau explored the ocean as a diver and marine scientist. A. Jacques Cousteau was a filmmaker and author; Jacques Cousteau explored the ocean as a marine scientist. B. Jacques Cousteau was a filmmaker and author, he explored the ocean as a diver and marine scientist. C. Jacques Cousteau was a filmmaker

and author who explored the ocean as a diver and marine scientist. D. Jacques Cousteau was a filmmaker, author, diver, and scientist.

incorrect answer choices. Then, try filling in the blanks with the remaining choices to determine which answer choice makes the most sense. Finally, check to be sure your choice is grammatically correct.

Explanation: A. Answer choice A is grammatically correct but unnecessarily repeats the subject Jacques Cousteau and leaves out some information. B. Choice B is a run-on sentence, so it cannot be the correct answer. C. Choice C is grammatically correct, and it demonstrates effective sentence combining. D. Choice D is grammatically correct but leaves out some information. Answer: Because answer choice C shows the best way to combine the sentences, the oval for choice C is darkened.

Fill-in-the-blanks This type of question tests your ability to fill in blanks in sentences, giving answers that are logical and grammatically correct. A question of this kind might ask you to choose a verb in the appropriate tense. A different question might require a combination of adverbs (first, next) to show how parts of the sentence relate. Another question might require a vocabulary word to complete the sentence. To approach a sentence-completion question, first look for clue words in the sentence. But, however, and though indicate a contrast; therefore and as a result indicate cause and effect. Using sentence clues, rule out obviously

Directions: Choose the words that best complete the sentence. 1. When Jack _____ the dog, the dog _____ water everywhere. A. washes, splashed B. washed, will be splashing C. will have washed, has splashed D. washed, splashed

Explanation: A. The verb tenses (present and past) are inconsistent. B. The verb tenses (past and future) are inconsistent. C. The verb tenses (future perfect and present perfect) are inconsistent. D. The verb tenses (past and past) are consistent. Answer: The oval for choice D is darkened.

Using Your Test Smarts Remember: Success on standardized tests comes partly from knowing strategies for taking such tests—from being test-smart. Knowing these strategies can help you approach standardized achievement tests more confidently. Do your best to learn your classroom subjects, take practice tests if they are available, and use the strategies outlined in this section. Good luck!

Test Smarts

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RESOURCES

EXAMPLE

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Grammar at a Glance A

abbreviation An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or a phrase. ■ capitalization of (see page 267.)

HELP Grammar at a Glance is an alphabetical list of special terms and expressions with examples and references to further information. When you encounter a grammar or usage problem in the revising or proofreading stage of your writing, look for help in this section first. You may find all you need to know right here. If you need more information, Grammar at a Glance will show you where in the book to turn for a more complete explanation. If you do not find what you are looking for in Grammar at a Glance, turn to the index.

TITLES USED WITH NAMES KINDS OF ORGANIZATIONS PARTS OF ADDRESSES NAMES OF STATES

TIMES ■

Mrs. Capt. Sr. M.D. Assn. Inc. Dept. Corp. Ave. St. Blvd. P.O. Box [without ZIP Codes] Va. Ark. Mass. N. Mex. [with ZIP Codes] VA AR MA NM A.M.

P.M.

B.C.

A.D.

punctuation of (See page 291.) WITH PERIODS WITHOUT PERIODS

(See preceding examples.) CD-ROM NBC UFO FBI DC (D.C. without ZIP Code) mg qt tbsp cm yd [Exception: inch = in.]

action verb An action verb expresses physical or mental activity. (See page 45.) EXAMPLE

Uncle Jim drives a school bus.

active voice Active voice is the voice a verb is in when it expresses an action done by its subject. (See page 189. See also voice.) EXAMPLE 476

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Grammar at a Glance

The dog chased the squirrel across the yard.

adjective An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. (See page 34.) EXAMPLE

Do you see that beautiful, old wood house over there?

adjective clause An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun. (See page 117.) EXAMPLE

We saw an advertisement for a car that has aluminum wheels. [The adjective clause modifies the noun car.]

EXAMPLE

RESOURCES

adjective phrase A prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun is called an adjective phrase. (See page 92.) Dana prefers the backpack with large pockets. [The adjective phrase modifies the noun backpack.]

adverb An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (See page 54.) EXAMPLE

Mom and Dad often drive us to the lake on weekends. [The adverb modifies the verb drive.]

adverb clause An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. (See page 120.) EXAMPLE

Trudy’s grades have improved since she cut back her TV viewing. [The adverb clause modifies the verb have improved.]

adverb phrase A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb is called an adverb phrase. (See page 94.) EXAMPLE

After dark, the carol singers went from house to house. [The adverb phrase modifies the verb went.]

affix An affix is a word part that is added before or after a base word or root. (See page 350. See also prefix and suffix.) EXAMPLES

de + code = decode im + polite = impolite feel + ing = feeling serious + ly = seriously

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agreement Agreement is the correspondence, or match, between grammatical forms. Grammatical forms agree when they have the same number and gender. ■ of pronouns and antecedents (See page 165.) SINGULAR PLURAL

Desmond often rides his bicycle to school. Desmond’s classmates ride their bicycles to school.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Has everyone in the club paid his or her dues? Have all of the club members paid their dues?

SINGULAR

Neither Darleen nor Clarissa was pleased with her audition. Darleen and Clarissa were not pleased with their auditions.

RESOURCES

PLURAL ■

of subjects and verbs (See page 148.) SINGULAR

PLURAL

SINGULAR PLURAL

Neither Kevin nor I was able to go to band camp last summer. Needless to say, both Kevin and I were disappointed. Here is a list of topics from which you can choose. Here are the topics from which you can choose.

SINGULAR

The social studies class is watching a video about the space program. The social studies class are writing their essays on the space program.

SINGULAR PLURAL

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Each of the students is looking forward to seeing the dinosaur exhibit. All of the students are looking forward to seeing the dinosaur exhibit.

SINGULAR PLURAL

PLURAL

478

The music teacher is composing an opera. The music teacher, with the help of her students, is composing an opera. The music students are composing an opera. The music students, with the help of their teacher, are composing an opera.

Grammar at a Glance

Six dollars is the price of the kite. From this stack of bills, six dollars are missing.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Parallel Journeys was written by Eleanor Ayer. Early journeys to North America were risky.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Is gymnastics an Olympic sport? Are the scissors in your sewing basket?

antecedent An antecedent is the word or words that a pronoun stands for. (See page 30.) EXAMPLE

Tim doesn’t know how long his essay will be. [His refers to Tim.]

■

to form contractions (See page 333.) EXAMPLES

■

wouldn’ t

I’ll

o’clock

’99

to form plurals of letters, numerals, and words used as words (See page 337.) EXAMPLES

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RESOURCES

apostrophe

A’s and B’s

and’s instead of &’s

5’s and 10’s

to show possession (See page 330.) EXAMPLES

player’s uniform players’ uniforms children’s literature someone’s backpack Steven Spielberg’s and George Lucas’s movies Batman and Robin’s first adventure

appositive An appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed beside another noun or pronoun to identify or describe it. (See page 106.) EXAMPLE

My friend Désirée recently moved to a new house. [Désirée identifies friend.]

appositive phrase An appositive phrase consists of an appositive and its modifiers. (See page 106.) EXAMPLE

The first taxi in the line was driven by Stavros, a grayhaired man with a mustache.

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article The articles, a, an, and the, are the most frequently used adjectives. (See page 35.) EXAMPLES

a football

a uniform

an antelope

an honor

the answer

the farmhouse

bad, badly (See page 246.)

RESOURCES

NONSTANDARD STANDARD

This green apple tastes badly. This green apple tastes bad.

base A base is a word that can stand alone or combine with other word parts. Prefixes and suffixes can be added to a base to create many different words. (See also root.) EXAMPLES

cycle

recycle

graph

graphic

base form The base form, or infinitive, is one of the four principal parts of a verb. (See page 175.) EXAMPLE

Can you help me to find this address?

brackets (See page 341.) EXAMPLES

The movie critic wrote, “This actor’s performance is a tour de force [an unusually skillful performance].” Many of the Iroquois legends we know today might have been lost without the efforts of Kaiiontwa’ko (perhaps better known as Cornplanter [his Iroquois name means “by what one plants”] ).

capitalization ■ of abbreviations (See abbreviation.) ■ of first words (See page 266.) EXAMPLES

My brother has started taking cello lessons. Nick asked, “What does the French phrase déjà vu mean?” Dear Ms. Neruda: Yours truly,

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of proper nouns and proper adjectives (See pages 266 and 276.)

Proper Noun

Common Noun

North America

continent

El Salvador

country

Staten Island

island

Chautauqua Lake

body of water

Jurassic Period

historical period

Mother’s Day

holiday

Blue Ridge Mountains

mountain chain

Saguaro National Park

park

Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest

forest

Mammoth Cave

cave

Kings Canyon

canyon

Southeast

region

Thirty-second Street

street

National Urban League

organization

San Diego Padres

team

Bowling Green State University

institution

Democratic Party (or party)

political party

Roth’s Optical

business firm

Super Bowl

special event

February, May, August, November

calendar items

Yavapai-Apache

people

Christianity

religion

Buddhist

religious follower

God (but the god Zeus)

deity

Passover

holy day

Torah

sacred writing

Jupiter

planet

Alpha Centauri

star

Ursa Major

constellation

Andrea Doria

ship

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(continued) Grammar at a Glance

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(continued)

Proper Noun

Common Noun

Enola Gay

aircraft

Atlantis

spacecraft

Biology I (but biology)

school subject

Mandarin

language

Mount Rushmore National Memorial

monument

World Trade Center

building

Heisman Trophy

award

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of titles (See page 278.) EXAMPLES

Senator Feinstein [preceding a name] Feinstein, a senator from California [following a name] Thank you, Senator. [direct address] Uncle Alphonse (but my uncle Alphonse) Anasazi: Ancient People of the Rock [book] Mythic Warriors: Guardians of the Legend [TV program] Arrangement in Black and Gray: The Artist’s Mother [work of art] Rhapsody in Blue [musical composition] “The Frog Who Wanted to Be a Singer” [short story] “I Am of the Earth” [poem] Reader’s Digest [magazine] the Orlando Sentinel [newspaper] Family Circus [comic strip] Back to Titanic [audiotape or CD]

case of pronouns Case is the form a pronoun takes to show how it is used in a sentence. (See page 201.) NOMINATIVE

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She and I are taking tae kwon do lessons. Two of the award winners are Erica and he.

POSSESSIVE

RESOURCES

OBJECTIVE

Neither baby sitter, Brigitte nor she, is available this evening. We students presented historical skits. Is David Alfaro Siqueiros the artist who painted this? We don’t know who she is. Did you see Jamaal and her at the Juneteenth festival? Kristen invited him and me to the concert. Are you going with them to the video arcade? The Earth Day festivities are being organized by two teachers, Mr. Zapata and her. Our guide gave us spelunkers a map of the cave we would explore. Ms. Jennings, whom everyone at school admires, will retire this year. One of the candidates whom I will vote for is Tamisha. Their understanding of the rules differs from ours. Her making the jump shot in the final seconds sent the game into overtime.

clause A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and is used as part of a sentence. (See page 113. See also independent clause and subordinate clause.) EXAMPLES

she arrives at work on time [independent clause] unless the bus is late [subordinate clause] She arrives at work on time unless the bus is late.

clear reference Clear reference occurs when a pronoun clearly refers to its antecedent. (See page 216.) EXAMPLES

After Ben finished his homework, he walked to the library and checked out three books. [He refers to Ben.] Although Avery and Becca arrived at the theater late, they were still able to find good seats. [They refers to Avery and Becca.]

colon (See page 311.) ■ before lists EXAMPLES

To assemble the bookcase, you will need the following tools: a crescent wrench, a small hammer, and a Phillips screwdriver. Grammar at a Glance

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The Bookends Club is featuring books by these authors: A. A. Milne, Laura Ingalls Wilder, and Judy Blume. ■

in conventional situations EXAMPLES

7:30 P.M. Exodus 20:3–17 The Whole Internet: User’s Guide & Catalog Dear Sir:

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comma (See page 294.) ■ in a series EXAMPLES

Shandra, Seth, and I spent the summer working at the animal shelter. Alonzo’s hobbies include making wind chimes, working jigsaw puzzles, and writing short stories and poems.

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in compound sentences EXAMPLES

We seventh graders performed three plays this year, but my favorite was Androcles and the Lion by Bernard Shaw. My friend Albert portrayed Androcles, and I played the part of the lion.

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with nonessential phrases and clauses EXAMPLES

Yu the Great, a mythical Chinese king, possessed superhuman powers. [nonessential phrase] Yu the Great, who possessed superhuman powers, could transform himself into different animals. [nonessential clause]

■

with introductory elements EXAMPLES

Sitting around the campfire, we sang songs and told silly stories. If you like to read books in which animals are the main characters, you may enjoy The Long Patrol. In one of the store windows, I saw an unusual silver trinket.

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with interrupters EXAMPLES

■

The Gila monster, for example, is a poisonous lizard. Most other lizards, however, are harmless.

in conventional situations EXAMPLES

On Friday, July 17, 2000, we flew from Baltimore, Maryland, to Raleigh, North Carolina, to attend my brother’s graduation. Isn’t your address 728 Lakewood Boulevard, Grand Rapids, MI 49501-0827?

COMMA SPLICE

REVISED

RESOURCES

comma splice A comma splice is a run-on sentence in which only a comma separates two complete sentences. (See run-on sentence.) In 1962, John H. Glenn, Jr., became the first American to orbit the earth, then in 1998, at the age of 77, Glenn made history again by becoming the oldest person to travel in space. In 1962, John H. Glenn, Jr., became the first American to orbit the earth, and then in 1998, at the age of 77, Glenn made history again by becoming the oldest person to travel in space. In 1962, John H. Glenn, Jr., became the first American to orbit the earth; then in 1998, at the age of 77, Glenn made history again by becoming the oldest person to travel in space.

comparison of modifiers (See page 224.) ■ comparison of adjectives and adverbs Positive

Comparative Superlative

short heavy

shorter heavier

shortest heaviest

generous

more (less)

most (least)

generous slowly

more (less)

slowly bad/ill

worse

generous most (least)

slowly worst

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comparing two EXAMPLES

Of Mars and Venus, which planet is closer to Earth? In the balloon, we flew higher and farther than we had thought we would. China is more populous than any other country.

■

comparing more than two EXAMPLES

Lake Superior is the largest of the five Great Lakes. Of all of the figure skaters in the competition, I think that Michelle Kwan performed most gracefully.

RESOURCES

complement A complement is a word or word group that completes the meaning of a verb. (See page 73. See also direct object, indirect object, subject complement, predicate nominative, and predicate adjective.) EXAMPLES

All of Ms. Lozano’s students admire her. Bring us the map, please. Do you feel thirsty? Angela, this is Ramona.

complex sentence A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. (See page 135.) EXAMPLES

My favorite animated film was Cinderella [independent clause] until I saw The Jungle Book [subordinate clause]. When my little sister wrote a letter to Santa Claus [subordinate clause], she used the address North Pole, AK 99705 [independent clause], which, by the way, is the correct address. [subordinate clause]

compound-complex sentence A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. (See page 137.) EXAMPLES

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The Taj Mahal, which is located near Agra, India [subordinate clause], is a beautiful structure made almost entirely of white marble [independent clause]; it was built in the seventeenth century by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife [independent clause].

When they publish their works [subordinate clause], some writers use pseudonyms, or pen names, instead of their real names [independent clause]; for example, Theodor Geisel published most of his books for children under the pen name Dr. Seuss [independent clause]. The sweater that I bought last week [subordinate clause] was on sale [independent clause], and it fits well, too [independent clause].

compound sentence A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses. (See page 131.) Two of the kittens are gray [independent clause], but the third one is orange [independent clause].

RESOURCES

EXAMPLES

Yuri was born on February 29 [independent clause]; consequently, each year, except in a leap year, he celebrates his birthday on February 28 [independent clause]. Last night, Dad and I made pizza primavera [independent clause]; he prepared the dough and the Parmesan-cheese sauce [independent clause], and I diced the green onions, red peppers, carrots, and broccoli [independent clause].

compound subject A compound subject is made up of two or more subjects that are connected by a conjunction and that have the same verb. (See page 13.) EXAMPLES

Leaves and branches littered the yard after the hailstorm. Apples, plums, and blackberries grow in my grandmother’s orchard.

compound verb A compound verb consists of two or more verbs that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same subject. (See page 15.) EXAMPLES

At the last track meet, Trevor ran the mile relay, threw the discus, and participated in the high jump. Lauren attended soccer practice yesterday but missed today’s game.

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487

conjunction A conjunction joins words or groups of words. (See page 62.) COORDINATING CORRELATIVE SUBORDINATING

fish or fowl not only fair but also firm Although Boris had a cold, he insisted on performing.

contraction A contraction is a shortened form of a word, a numeral, or a group of words. Apostrophes in contractions indicate where letters or numerals have been omitted. (See page 333. See also apostrophe.) RESOURCES

EXAMPLES

you’re [you are]

there’s [there is or there has]

who’s [who is or who has]

they’re [they are]

aren’t [are not]

it’s [it is or it has]

’14–’18 war [1914–1918 war] o’clock [of the clock]

coordinating conjunction (See conjunction.) coordination Coordination is the use of a conjunction to link ideas of approximately equal importance. (See page 423. See also conjunction.) EXAMPLES

Kim and Ted volunteered to help. [And joins two nouns.] The bird is in the tree or on the telephone wire. [Or joins two phrases.] I enjoy the outdoors, but I have never liked camping. [But joins two clauses.]

correlative conjunction (See conjunction.)

dangling modifier A dangling modifier is a modifying word, phrase, or clause that does not clearly and sensibly modify a word or a word group in a sentence. (See page 233.) DANGLING

REVISED

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Grammar at a Glance

Digging a well near Xi’an, China, in 1974, thousands of ancient terra-cotta sculptures of warriors, horses, and chariots were uncovered. [Were thousands of sculptures digging a well?] Digging a well near Xi’an, China, in 1974, workers uncovered thousands of ancient terra-cotta sculptures of warriors, horses, and chariots.

dash (See page 341.) EXAMPLE

The marine biologist spent several days—ten, I think— recording the movements of the manatee and her calf.

declarative sentence A declarative sentence makes a statement and is followed by a period. (See page 18.) EXAMPLE

Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.

dependent clause (See subordinate clause.)

EXAMPLES

RESOURCES

derivative Derivatives are words derived from other words. earthling [from earth] union [from the Latin word unus, meaning “one”]

direct object A direct object is a word or word group that receives the action of the verb or shows the result of the action. A direct object answers the question Whom? or What ? after a transitive verb. (See page 74.) EXAMPLE

Rashmi visited them Tuesday afternoon.

double comparison A double comparison is the nonstandard use of two comparative forms (usually more and –er) or two superlative forms (usually most and –est) to express comparison. In standard usage, the single comparative form is correct. (See page 230.) NONSTANDARD STANDARD

Olympus Mons, a volcano on Mars, is the most highest mountain in our solar system. Olympus Mons, a volcano on Mars, is the highest mountain in our solar system.

double negative A double negative is the nonstandard use of two negative words when one is enough. (See page 231.) NONSTANDARD STANDARD

Alonzo is so very sleepy that he can’t hardly keep his eyes open. Alonzo is so very sleepy that he can hardly keep his eyes open.

Grammar at a Glance

489

NONSTANDARD STANDARD STANDARD

I haven’t never ridden in an airplane. I have never ridden in an airplane. I haven’t ever ridden in an airplane.

double subject A double subject occurs when an unnecessary pronoun is used after the subject of a sentence. (See page 251.) NONSTANDARD

RESOURCES

STANDARD

Abner Doubleday, contrary to popular belief, he did not create the game of baseball. Abner Doubleday, contrary to popular belief, did not create the game of baseball.

end marks ■ with sentences (See page 290.) EXAMPLES

■

In 1998, Mark McGwire broke Roger Maris’s single-season home-run record. [declarative sentence] How many home runs did Mark McGwire hit in 1998? [interrogative sentence] Wow! [interjection] McGwire hit seventy home runs! [exclamatory sentence] Don’t forget that in 1998 Sammy Sosa also surpassed Maris’s record by hitting sixty-six home runs. [imperative sentence]

with abbreviations (See page 291. See also abbreviation.) EXAMPLES

In 1964, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1964, was the Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.?

essential clause/essential phrase An essential, or restrictive, clause or phrase is necessary to the meaning of a sentence and is not set off by commas. (See page 300.) EXAMPLES

The woman who gives the lectures on Romanian art is Ms. Antonescu. [essential clause] The animals drinking at the water hole gave the elephants a wide berth. [essential phrase]

exclamation point (See end marks.)

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exclamatory sentence An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling and is followed by an exclamation point. (See page 19.) EXAMPLE

What a surprise this is!

fragment (See sentence fragment.) fused sentence A fused sentence is a run-on sentence in which no punctuation separates complete sentences. (See run-on sentence.)

REVISED

Most totems, or images, carved into a totem pole are symbolic usually the totem at the top of the pole represents the family’s guardian spirit. Most totems, or images, carved into a totem pole are symbolic; usually the totem at the top of the pole represents the family’s guardian spirit. Most totems, or images, carved into a totem pole are symbolic. Usually the totem at the top of the pole represents the family’s guardian spirit.

RESOURCES

FUSED

future perfect tense (See tense of verbs.) future tense (See tense of verbs.)

good, well (See page 228.) EXAMPLES

For a beginner, Julian is a good golfer. Yes, for a beginner, Julian plays golf extremely well [not good].

hyphen (See page 338.) ■ to divide words EXAMPLE ■

in compound numbers EXAMPLE

■

The Ecology Club at our school recently organized a recycling campaign. The Ecology Club has ninety-seven members.

with prefixes EXAMPLE

The Ecology Club began a recycling campaign in mid-September. Grammar at a Glance

491

imperative sentence An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request and is followed by either a period or an exclamation point. (See page 18.) EXAMPLES

Please turn the TV off. [request] Turn that TV off! [command]

indefinite pronoun An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a definite person, place, thing, or idea. (See page 32.) EXAMPLES

I have many, but he has few. Is someone calling for you?

RESOURCES

Both of the children wanted a drink of water.

independent clause An independent clause (also called a main clause) expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence. (See page 114.) EXAMPLE

Because Dad never has any spare time, he hired a contractor to build the deck.

indirect object An indirect object is a word or word group that often comes between a transitive verb and its direct object and tells to whom or to what or for whom or for what the action of the verb is done. (See page 76.) EXAMPLE

Kathleen gave the dog a rubber toy. [The direct object is toy.]

infinitive An infinitive is a verb form, usually preceded by to, that is used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (See page 102.) EXAMPLE

We all wanted to swim, so Mom took us to the pool.

infinitive phrase An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and its modifiers and complements. (See page 103.) EXAMPLE

To help one’s fellow human beings is an admirable goal, Ronny.

interjection An interjection expresses emotion and has no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. (See page 65.) EXAMPLE 492

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Grammar at a Glance

Wow! Look at those fireworks!

interrogative sentence An interrogative sentence asks a question and is followed by a question mark. (See page 19.) EXAMPLE

Have you ever seen the Rockies?

intransitive verb An intransitive verb is a verb that does not take an object. (See page 52.) EXAMPLE

The wind howls fiercely.

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

[is] being

was, were

[have] been

bring

[is] bringing

brought

[have] brought

choose

[is] choosing

chose

[have] chosen

cost

[is] costing

cost

[have] cost

eat

[is] eating

ate

[have] eaten

grow

[is] growing

grew

[have] grown

pay

[is] paying

paid

[have] paid

spread

[is] spreading

spread

[have] spread

RESOURCES

irregular verb An irregular verb is a verb that forms its past and past participle in some way other than by adding –d or –ed to the base form. (See page 178. See also regular verb.)

italics (See underlining [italics].) its, it’s (See page 251.) EXAMPLES

It’s [It is] your turn to clean its [the gerbil’s] cage. It’s [It has] been a long time since it’s [it has] been cleaned.

lie, lay (See page 193.) EXAMPLES

“You look tired, Mom. Perhaps you should lay your work aside and lie down for a while,” I suggested. Agreeing with me, Mom laid her reading glasses on her desk and lay down on the sofa.

Grammar at a Glance

493

linking verb A linking verb connects the subject with a word that identifies or describes the subject. (See page 46.) EXAMPLE

Starlings are determined nest-builders.

misplaced modifier A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that seems to modify the wrong word or words in a sentence. (See page 233.) MISPLACED

RESOURCES

REVISED

The pod of humpback whales entertained the passengers aboard the tour boat, leaping gracefully out of the gentle ocean waves. [Was the tour boat leaping gracefully?] Leaping gracefully out of the gentle ocean waves, the pod of humpback whales entertained the passengers aboard the tour boat.

modifier A modifier is a word or word group that makes the meaning of another word or word group more specific. (See page 223.) EXAMPLES

Harriet is happy. Laughing excitedly, the children burst the balloon.

nonessential clause/nonessential phrase A nonessential, or nonrestrictive, clause or phrase adds information not necessary to the main idea in the sentence and is set off by commas. (See page 299.) EXAMPLES

Diana discussed her trip to Florida, which took place last month. [nonessential clause] The twins, sitting quietly for a change, posed for the picture. [nonessential phrase]

noun A noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. (See page 25.) EXAMPLES

Elizabeth Peña

Paris

mountain

knowledge

number Number is the form a word takes to indicate whether the word is singular or plural. (See page 147.) SINGULAR PLURAL

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child

man

leaf

town

children

men

leaves

towns

object of a preposition An object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that ends a prepositional phrase. (See page 59.) EXAMPLE

She heard a composition on the radio by her music teacher. [On the radio and by her music teacher are prepositional phrases.]

parallelism Parallelism is the repetition of sentence patterns or of other grammatical structures. (See page 421.)

PARALLEL NOT PARALLEL

PARALLEL

Mark is a friendly person and kind. [a noun and an adjective] Mark is friendly and kind. [two adjectives]

RESOURCES

NOT PARALLEL

He is in a hurry, anxious, and has run out of patience. [prepositional phrase, adjective, and predicate] He is hurried, anxious, and impatient. [three adjectives]

parentheses (See page 340.) EXAMPLES

A praying mantis (see Illustration C) is the only insect that can turn its head from side to side. A praying mantis is the only insect that can turn its head from side to side. (See Illustration C.)

participial phrase A participial phrase consists of a participle and any complements and modifiers it has. (See page 100.) EXAMPLE

Admired for his courage, my cousin George is an impressive young man.

participle A participle is a verb form that can be used as an adjective. (See page 98.) EXAMPLE

Blushing, Tina accepted the award.

passive voice The passive voice is the voice a verb is in when it expresses an action done to its subject. (See page 189. See also voice.) EXAMPLE

The treasurer was re-elected with 60 percent of the vote.

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past perfect tense (See tense of verbs.) past tense (See tense of verbs.) period (See end marks.) phrase A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain both a verb and its subject and that is used as a single part of speech. (See page 89.)

RESOURCES

EXAMPLES

Steve, our champion swimmer, will represent King Junior High at the meet in Kansas City. [Our champion swimmer is an appositive phrase. At the meet and in Kansas City are prepositional phrases.] To make her own quilt is Maya’s goal. [To make her own quilt is an infinitive phrase.] The leaves, pressed thoroughly and laminated, will make beautiful coasters. [Pressed thoroughly and laminated is a participial phrase.]

predicate The predicate is the part of a sentence that says something about the subject. (See page 8.) EXAMPLES

Will she perform a solo? Horace may be responsible for that solution.

predicate adjective A predicate adjective is an adjective that completes the meaning of a linking verb and modifies the subject of the verb. (See page 81.) EXAMPLES

The trees looked red in the evening light. This rose smells beautiful.

predicate nominative A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that completes the meaning of a linking verb and identifies or refers to the subject of the verb. (See page 79.) EXAMPLES

A lizard is a reptile. My sister will be a lawyer soon.

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Resources

Grammar at a Glance

prefix A prefix is a word part that cannot stand alone and that is added before a base word or root to form a new word. (See page 350.) EXAMPLES

un + fair = unfair

il + legal = illegal

re + new = renew

pre + historic = prehistoric

self + esteem = self-esteem

ex + governor = ex-governor

mid + April = mid-April

post + Holocaust = post-Holocaust

EXAMPLE

RESOURCES

preposition A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in a sentence. (See page 58.) Berlin, the capital of Germany, is located in the east.

prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition and ending with its object. (See page 59. See also object of a preposition.) EXAMPLE

Before work, Dan always feeds the birds.

present perfect tense (See tense of verbs.) present tense (See tense of verbs.) pronoun A pronoun is used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns. (See page 30.) EXAMPLES

His muscles ached, she was sunburned, and their feet were sore, but all in all they had had a wonderful day. All of the guests helped themselves to more of the spinach salad.

question mark (See end marks.) quotation marks (See page 322.) ■

for direct quotations EXAMPLE

“Learning a few simple rules,” said the teacher, “will help you avoid many common spelling errors.”

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■

with other marks of punctuation (See also preceding example.) EXAMPLES

“Through which South American countries does the Amazon River flow?” asked Enrique. Which poem begins with the line “The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees”? Cynthia asked, “Did Amy Tan write the short story ‘Fish Cheeks’?”

■

for titles

RESOURCES

EXAMPLES

“Song of the Trees” [short story] “Mama Is a Sunrise” [short poem] “Many Rivers to Cross” [song]

regular verb A regular verb is a verb that forms its past and past participle by adding –d or –ed to the base form. (See page 176. See also irregular verb.)

Base Form

Present Participle

Past

Past Participle

ask

[is] asking

asked

[have] asked

attack

[is] attacking

attacked

[have] attacked

drown

[is] drowning

drowned

[have] drowned

suppose

[is] supposing

supposed

[have] supposed

use

[is] using

used

[have] used

rise, raise (See page 191.) EXAMPLES

The river rose rapidly. The lieutenant raised a white flag to signal surrender.

root A root is a word part that cannot stand alone. It combines with other word parts to form words. Prefixes and suffixes can be added to a root to create new words. (See also base.) EXAMPLES

498

Resources

Grammar at a Glance

–loq–

–dict–

–lith–

eloquent

predict

monolith

run-on sentence A run-on sentence is two or more complete sentences run together as one. (See page 416. See also comma splice and fused sentence.) RUN-ON REVISED REVISED

We were so impressed by the story that we said nothing he grew a little impatient. We were so impressed by the story that we said nothing. He grew a little impatient. We were so impressed by the story that we said nothing; he grew a little impatient.

EXAMPLE ■

My sister plays violin in her school’s symphony orchestra; her goal is to become first chair.

in compound sentences with conjunctive adverbs EXAMPLE

■

RESOURCES

semicolon (See page 310.) ■ in compound sentences with no conjunction

I play that movie’s soundtrack nearly every day; consequently, I know the lyrics of all of its songs.

between items in a series when the items contain commas EXAMPLE

The band’s cross-country tour includes concerts in Seattle, Washington; Albuquerque, New Mexico; Cincinnati, Ohio; and Miami, Florida.

sentence A sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. (See page 4.) EXAMPLE

S V Mr. Holland will give his presentation in the auditorium.

sentence fragment A sentence fragment is a group of words that is punctuated as if it were a complete sentence but that does not contain both a subject and a verb or that does not express a complete thought. (See pages 4 and 414.) FRAGMENT SENTENCE

In 2002, the Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City. In 2002, the Winter Olympic Games will be held in Salt Lake City.

FRAGMENT SENTENCE

To find more information about the Zapotec culture. To find more information about the Zapotec culture, we searched the Internet.

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simple sentence A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. (See page 130.) EXAMPLES

Both the cheetah and the chimpanzee are endangered species. How many other species of mammals are endangered?

sit, set (See page 190.)

RESOURCES

EXAMPLES

The science students sat quietly, watching the televised launch of the space shuttle Atlantis. On top of the television, the science teacher set her model of the space shuttle Atlantis.

stringy sentence A stringy sentence is a sentence that has too many independent clauses. Usually, the clauses are strung together with coordinating conjunctions like and or but. (See page 428.) STRINGY

I remember that the first time I looked through binoculars at the night sky I was surprised that I could clearly see the craters of the moon and the satellites of Jupiter, but what amazed me most was a bright object shimmering with many different colors near the horizon, and I, of course, immediately thought that I had spotted a UFO, but I learned later that the colorful object was not a UFO but the planet Venus.

REVISED

I remember the first time I looked through binoculars at the night sky. I was surprised that I could clearly see the craters of the moon and the satellites of Jupiter. What amazed me most, however, was a bright object shimmering with many different colors near the horizon. I, of course, immediately thought that I had spotted a UFO. I learned later, though, that the colorful object was not a UFO but the planet Venus.

subject The subject tells whom or what a sentence is about. (See page 5.) EXAMPLE

Finally, the train entered the station.

subject complement A subject complement is a word or word group that completes the meaning of a linking verb and identifies or describes the subject. (See page 79.) EXAMPLE 500

Resources

Grammar at a Glance

Linus was impressive in the play last night.

subordinate clause A subordinate clause (also called a dependent clause) does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. (See page 114. See also adjective clause and adverb clause.) EXAMPLE

Margaret and Melanie are two six-year-old girls who live in San Marcos, Texas.

subordinating conjunction (See conjunction.)

EXAMPLES

RESOURCES

subordination Subordination is the use of a subordinate clause to show that an idea is not as important as the idea in an independent clause. (See page 425. See also conjunction.) Until you called, I didn’t know of your return. [Until connects the subordinate clause Until you called to the independent clause I didn’t know of your return.] Is the painting that Laura did on display? [That connects the subordinate clause that Laura did to the independent clause Is the painting on display?]

suffix A suffix is a word part that is added after a base word or root. (See page 350.) EXAMPLES

safe + ly =safely

fair + ness =fairness

busy + ly =busily

enjoy + ing = enjoying

active + ity = activity

knowledge + able = knowledgeable

swim + er = swimmer

teach + er = teacher

syllable A syllable is a word part that can be pronounced as one uninterrupted sound. (See page 347.) EXAMPLES

stretch [one syllable] per • plex [two syllables] un • der • stand [three syllables]

tense of verbs The tense of verbs indicates the time of the action or state of being expressed by the verb. (See page 186.)

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501

Present I write

we write

you write

he, she, it writes

they write

Past I wrote

we wrote

you wrote

he, she, it wrote

they wrote

RESOURCES

Future I will (shall) write

we will (shall) write

you will (shall) write

he, she, it will (shall) write

they will (shall) write

Present Perfect I have written

we have written

you have written

he, she, it has written

they have written

Past Perfect I had written

we had written

you had written

he, she, it had written

they had written

Future Perfect I will (shall) have written

we will (shall) have written

you will (shall) have written

he, she, it will (shall) have written

they will (shall) have written

their, there, they’re (See page 255.) EXAMPLES

502

Resources

Grammar at a Glance

Did Mr. and Mrs. Wilson invite us to their Fourth of July party? [Their tells whose party.] I hung the calendar there on the kitchen wall. [There tells where the calendar was hung.] There is not much vegetable soup left. [There begins the sentence but does not add to the sentence’s meaning.]

They’re playing a new computer game. [They’re is a contraction of They are.]

transitions Transitions are words or word groups that show how ideas are related. (See page 437.) EXAMPLES

Sara and Adrian waded in the river; however, they decided not to swim. Afterward, they had a picnic and then walked home.

EXAMPLE

Marcia washed her minivan yesterday.

underlining (italics) (See page 320.) ■ for titles EXAMPLES

Thurgood Marshall: American Revolutionary [book] Sports Illustrated for Kids [periodical] American Gothic [work of art] The Water Carrier [long musical composition]

■

for words, letters, and symbols used as such and for foreign words EXAMPLES

Notice that the word Mississippi has four i’s, four s’s, and two p’s. A fait accompli is anything that is done that cannot be undone.

verb A verb expresses an action or a state of being. (See page 45.) EXAMPLES

We walked slowly down the steep hill. The grasshopper is near the fence.

verbal A verbal is a form of a verb used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (See page 98. See also participle and infinitive.) EXAMPLES

The children were amazed by the leaping lemurs. To leave was hard. Grammar at a Glance

503

RESOURCES

transitive verb A transitive verb is an action verb that takes an object. (See page 52.)

verbal phrase A verbal phrase consists of a verbal and any modifiers and complements it has. (See page 98. See also participial phrase and infinitive phrase.) EXAMPLES

Running fast, the squirrel reached the safety of the tree. I don’t want to say goodbye.

verb phrase A verb phrase consists of a main verb and at least one helping verb. (See page 11.) EXAMPLES

Have you seen Rich today?

RESOURCES

I would be going tomorrow, otherwise.

voice Voice is the form a transitive verb takes to indicate whether the subject of the verb performs or receives the action. (See page 189.) ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Patricia MacLachlan wrote the book Sarah, Plain and Tall. The book Sarah, Plain and Tall was written by Patricia MacLachlan.

well (See good, well.) who, whom (See page 211.) EXAMPLES

For two weeks last summer, I visited my pen pal Émile, who lives in Montreal, Quebec. My pen pal Émile, whom I have known for five years, has taught me much about French Canadian traditions.

wordiness Wordiness is the use of more words than necessary or the use of fancy words where simple ones will do. (See page 430.) WORDY

REVISED

504

Resources

Grammar at a Glance

In the event that it rains, we will not cancel the party that we have planned in celebration of Cinco de Mayo but instead, as an alternative, will hold the party indoors, not outdoors. If it rains, we will hold our Cinco de Mayo party indoors.

INDEX

A A, an as indefinite articles, 35 usage of, 245 A, an, the, capitalization of, 267, 279 Abbreviations A.D., 292 in addresses, 291 B.C., 292 capitalization of, 291–92, 476 definition of, 476 at end of sentence, 292 exclamation points and, 292 of governmental agencies, 291 of organizations and companies, 291 periods and, 291–92 of personal names, 291 punctuation of, 291–92, 476 question marks and, 292 state abbreviations with ZIP Codes, 268, 292 of states, 291 of times and dates, 291 of titles used with names, 291 Abstract nouns, 28 Accept, except, 246, 359 Acronyms, definition of, 291 Action verbs, 47 adverb modifiers and, 229 definition of, 45, 476 direct object and, 80 Active voice, 189, 236 definition of, 476 A.D., 292 Addresses abbreviations in, 291 capitalization in, 268 hyphens in street numbers, 268 punctuation of, 306–307 ZIP Code, 292, 307 Adjective(s) adverbs distinguished from, 55 definition of, 34, 477 degree of comparison of, 224–27 demonstrative adjectives, 31, 36 diagramming and, 448 ending in –ly, 55 indefinite pronouns used as, 32 infinitives used as, 102 linking verbs and, 229 as modifiers, 223 nouns used as, 35, 37, 39

participial phrases as, 100 participles used as, 98 personal pronouns as, 202 placement of, 34 pronouns used as, 36, 39 proper adjectives, 37 punctuation of a series of adjectives, 296 Adjective clauses adjective phrases distinguished from, 117 in complex sentence, 135 definition of, 117, 426, 477 diagramming of, 458 introductory words of, 135 placement of, 117, 238 relative pronouns and, 32, 118, 135, 238 Adjective phrases definition of, 92, 477 diagramming and, 454 identification of, 95 as modifiers, 92 placement of, 92, 95 Adverb(s) adjectives distinguished from, 55 as defining verbs, 54 definition of, 54, 477 degree of comparison of, 224–27 diagramming and, 448–49 ending in –ly, 55 formed from adjectives, 55 infinitive used as, 102 interrupting verb phrase, 50 linking verbs and, 229 list of, 54–55 as modifiers, 223–24 never, 12 not, 12, 55 placement of, 56–57 prepositions distinguished from, 61 questions answered by, 54 very as overused adverb, 55 Adverb clauses adverb phrases distinguished from, 120 definition of, 120, 426, 477 diagramming of, 458–59 introductory adverb clauses, 305 placement of, 120 punctuation of, 120, 305 questions answered by, 120 subordinating conjunctions and, 121, 135 Adverb phrases definition of, 94, 477 diagramming and, 454–55 as modifiers, 94–95 placement of, 95 Advice, advise, 359 Affect, effect, 359 Affix, definition of, 477 Index

505

Agreement (pronoun-antecedent) antecedents joined by and, 166 antecedents joined by or or nor, 166 in awkward-sounding sentence, 166 collective noun as antecedent, 167 definition of, 478 expressions of amounts and, 168 gender and, 165 indefinite pronoun as antecedent, 151, 152–53, 166 name of an organization, country, or city, 168 number and, 165–68 plural pronoun as antecedent, 166 proper nouns in plural form, 168 singular pronoun as antecedent, 166 title of a creative work, 168 Agreement (subject-verb) in awkward-sounding sentences, 156 collective nouns and, 158–59 compound subject and, 155 definition of, 478–79 don’t, doesn’t, 162–63 expressions of amounts and, 161 here’s, there’s, where’s, 160 indefinite pronouns and, 151, 152–53 inverted word order and, 160 name of a country, city, or organization, 162 number and, 150–51 with phrase between subject and verb, 150–51 plural nouns and, 161 plural subjects and verbs, 148 problems with, 150–63 in questions, 159 sentence revision and, 423 in sentences beginning with here or there, 159 singular subject and verb, 148, 156 subjects following verbs, 159–60 subjects joined by and, 155 subjects joined by or, nor, 156 title of a creative work and, 162 Ain’t, 246 All right, 246, 359 A lot, 246 Already, all ready, 246, 359 Altar, alter, 360 Altogether, all together, 360 Among, between, 248 And agreement (subject-verb) and, 155 antecedents joined by, 166 independent clauses and, 428 sentence combining and, 423–24 Antecedents clear references with pronouns, 216–17, 483 definition of, 30, 479 Anyways, anywheres, everywheres, nowheres, somewheres, 246 Apostrophes

506

Index

with contractions, 332, 333–34, 479 forming plurals of letters, numerals, words used as words and, 479 personal pronoun possessives and, 330, 332 plural possessive and, 331 plurals of numerals, letters, symbols, and words and, 337, 358 with possessives, 330–32, 479 proper nouns and, 330 singular possessive case and, 330 Appositive(s) definition of, 106, 213, 301, 479 diagramming of, 457 essential appositives, 302 nonessential appositives, 301 pronoun as, 213 Appositive phrases, 301 definition of, 106, 479 diagramming of, 457 nonessential appositive phrases, 301 punctuation of, 106, 421 Articles capitalization of, 267, 279 definite articles, 35 definition of, 35, 480 indefinite articles, 35 As, if, as though, like, 252 As, like, 252 At, 246 Attractively, comparison of, 226 Auxiliary verbs. See Helping verbs.

B Bad, comparison of, 227 Bad, badly, 246–47, 480 Base, definition of, 480 Base form of verbs, 175, 176, 178–82 definition of, 480 Be forms of, 46, 493 as helping verb, 50, 175 as linking verb, 46–47 Become, principal parts of, 178 Begin, principal parts of, 179 Between, among, 248 B.C., 292 Bite, principal parts of, 179 Blow, principal parts of, 179 Borrowed words, 467–68 Brackets, 341, 480 Brake, break, 360 Break, principal parts of, 179 Bring, principal parts of, 179, 493 Bring, take, 248

British vs. American spelling and pronunciation, 467 Broken quotations, 323 Build, principal parts of, 178, 179 Burst, principal parts of, 179 Business letters, salutation in, 312 Bust, busted, 248 But independent clauses and, 297, 428 sentence combining and, 423–24 Buy, principal parts of, 178, 179

C Can’t hardly, can’t scarcely, 248 Capital, capitol, 360 Capitalization of abbreviations, 291–92, 476 of aircraft, 272 of animals, 267 articles a, an, and the, 267, 279 of awards, 273 of brand names and business products, 272 of businesses, 272 of buildings and other structures, 272 of calendar items and holidays, 271 of common nouns, 266–67 of constellations, 274 coordinating conjunctions and, 279 of deities (specific), 273 of earth, sun, moon, 274 of east, west, north, south, 268 of family relationship words, 279 of first word of direct quotation, 266 of first word of sentence, 266, 480 of geographical names, 267–68 of goddess, god, 273 of government bodies, 271 of heavenly bodies, 274 of historical events and periods, 271 of holy days, 273 of hyphenated street numbers, 268 of institutions, 271 of I pronoun, 266 in letters (correspondence), 266 of monuments and memorials, 273 of names of persons, 267 of nationalities, races, peoples, 271 of organizations, 271 of planets and celestial bodies, 274 in poetry, 266 of prepositions of fewer than five letters, 279 of proper adjectives, 276–77, 481–82 of proper nouns, 266–74, 481–82 of proper nouns used as adjectives, 37 in quoted sentences, 266, 323

of religions, 273 rules for, 266–80 of sacred writings, 273 of school subjects, 277 of seasons, 271 of sentence within sentence, 340 of ships, 272 of spacecraft, 272 of special events, 271 of teams, 271 of titles and subtitles of works, 279–80, 482 of titles of persons, 278–79, 482 of trains, 272 Capitol, capital, 360 Case forms definition of, 201 nominative case, 201, 202, 203–204, 482–83 nouns and, 202 objective case, 201, 202, 206–209, 483 personal pronouns, 202 possessive case, 201, 202, 330–32, 483 pronouns and, 201–209, 482–83 Catch, principal parts of, 179 –cede, –ceed, –sede, spelling rule for, 350 Choose, chose, 360 Choose, principal parts of, 179, 493 Clauses. See also Adjective clauses; Adverb clauses; Subordinate clauses. adjective clauses, 117–18 adverb clauses, 120–21 beginning with who, which, or that, 426 definition of, 113, 426, 483 essential clauses, 300 independent clauses, 114 introductory clauses, 305 kinds of, 114–21 as modifiers, 224 nonessential clauses, 299, 494 phrases distinguished from, 89 placement of, 232–38 punctuation of, 294, 297, 299–300, 305, 426 sentence fragments and, 113 in a series, 294 subordinate clauses, 114, 501 with words of time or place, 426 Clean, principal parts of, 176 Clear reference of pronoun and antecedent, 216–17, 483 Close, comparison of, 225 Closing of a letter, punctuating with comma, 307 Cloths, clothes, 360 Coarse, course, 361 Collective nouns, 29, 158–59, 167 Colloquialisms, 469 Colons before a list of items, 311–12, 483–84 between titles and subtitles, 312 Index

507

in Biblical references, 312 in conventional situations, 484 in expressions of time, 312 following and as follows, 311 placement of, 311–12 in salutations of letters, 312 Combining sentences, 418–26 by using and, but, or, 423–24 phrase insertion and, 420–21 subordinate clauses and, 425–26 word insertion and, 419 Come, principal parts of, 179 Commands, 18–19, 290 Commas in addresses, 306–307 adverb clauses and, 120 appositive phrases and, 106 appositives and appositive phrases and, 301–302 in compound sentences, 131, 297, 484 in conventional situations, 306–307, 485 dates and, 306 direct address and, 303 independent clauses and, 294 interjections and, 65 with interrupters, 299–304, 485 introductory words, phrases, and clauses and, 305, 484 items in a series and, 294–95, 484 with multiple adjectives, 296 nonessential phrases and clauses and, 299, 484 parenthetical expressions and, 303–304 quotations and, 323–24 in salutations and closings of letters, 307 used before and, but, or, 297 used before for, nor, so, yet, 297 Comma splices, 485 Common nouns, 26, 266 Comparative degree, 225–27, 485 Comparison of modifiers choosing form of, 225 comparative degree, 225–27, 485 comparing more than two, 486 comparing two, 225, 486 comparison of adjectives and adverbs, 224–27, 485 decreasing comparison, 226–27 double comparison, 230 irregular comparison, 227 positive degree, 225–27, 485 regular comparison, 225–27 superlative degree, 225–27, 485 Complement, compliment, 361 Complements definition of, 73, 486 direct objects, 74–75 indirect objects, 76–77 recognizing complements, 73–74 subject complements, 79–81

508

Index

Complete sentences, 414–17 requirements of, 414 Complete subjects, 6–7 Complex sentences definition of, 135, 435, 486 diagramming of, 461 parts of, 135 and subordinate clauses, 425 Compound-complex sentences, 137, 435 definition of, 486–87 diagramming, 462 Compound direct object, 75 choosing the correct pronoun and, 207 diagramming and, 451 Compound indirect object, 77, 451 Compound nouns, 25, 296, 358 Compound numbers (numerals), hyphens with, 338, 491 Compound predicate adjectives, 453 Compound predicate nominatives, 80, 452 Compound sentences compound subjects and verbs in, 133 definition of, 131, 435, 487 diagramming of, 460 independent clauses and, 131–32, 487 punctuation of, 131–32, 297 relationship of ideas in, 424 sentence combining and, 424 Compound subjects, 13, 133, 155, 423, 446, 447, 487 Compound verbs, 15, 133, 423, 446, 447, 487 Computers creating a Help file, 167 correcting modifier problems, 234 editing on computer, 82, 138 grammar checker, 4, 194, 430 italicizing with, 320 proofreading and, 114 sentence structure and, 138 spellchecker and, 245, 267, 348 thesaurus program and, 34 Concrete nouns, 28 Conjugation of verbs, 186–88 Conjunctions. See also Coordinating conjunctions; Subordinating conjunctions. with compound subjects, 13 with compound verbs, 15 correlative conjunctions, 63 definition of, 62, 488 diagramming and, 449 for as, 62 Consistency of tense, 188 Consonants, spelling rules for final consonant, 353 Context, definition of, 153 Contractions apostrophes and, 332, 333–34, 488 definition of, 333, 488 don’t, doesn’t and agreement, 162–63

here’s, there’s, where’s, 160 list of common contractions, 333 not in, 333 possessive pronouns distinguished from, 334 Coordinating conjunctions capitalization and, 279 compound sentences and, 131, 133 list of, 62 punctuation of, 310 run-on sentences and, 417 Coordination, definition of, 423, 488 Correlative conjunctions, 63, 488 Cost, principal parts of, 179, 493 Costly, comparison of, 227 Could of, 249 Council, councilor, counsel, counselor, 362 Course, coarse, 361 Cut, principal parts of, 179

D –d, ending, 98 Dangling modifiers, 233, 236 definition of, 488 Dashes, 489 uses of, 341–42 Declarative sentences, 18 definition of, 489 Definite articles, 35 Degrees of comparison, 224–27 Demonstrative adjectives, 31, 36 Demonstrative pronouns, 31, 36 Dependent clauses. See Subordinate clauses. Derivatives, 489 Desert, dessert, 362 Diagrams. See Sentence diagrams. Dialects, of English language, 468 Dialogue interjections in, 66 new paragraphs and, 326 punctuating dialogue, 326 using underlining (italics) in, 321 Dictionary principal parts of verb and, 178 as spelling aid, 347 Direct address capitalizing the title of person in, 278 punctuation of, 303 Direct objects action verbs and, 80 as compound, 75 definition of, 74, 206, 489 diagramming and, 450–51 linking verbs and, 74 objective case and, 206

predicate nominative distinguished from, 80 prepositional phrases and, 74 pronouns as, 74 questions answered by, 74 Direct quotations capitalization of, 266, 323 punctuating with commas, 323–24 punctuating with end marks, 324 quotation marks and, 322–24 Dividing words, hyphens and, 338 Do as helping verb, 50 principal parts of, 178, 179 Don’t, doesn’t, 162–63 Double comparison, 230 definition of, 489 Double negatives, 231 definition of, 489–90 Double subjects, definition of, 251, 490 Draw, principal parts of, 175, 179 Drink, principal parts of, 178, 179 Drive, principal parts of, 179

E e (final silent), spelling rules for, 351–52 Easy, comparison of, 226 Eat, principal parts of, 179, 493 –ed ending, 98, 421 Editing, on computer, 82, 138 Effect, affect, 359 ei and ie, spelling rule for, 348–49 End marks, 290–92 abbreviations and, 291–92, 490 definition of, 290 exclamation points, 290 periods, 290 question marks, 290 with quotations marks, 324 with sentences, 490 sentence within sentence and, 340 English language borrowed words in, 467–68 British vs. American spelling and pronunciation, 467 changes in word meaning in, 466–67 colloquialisms, 469 dialects of, 468 formal English, 245, 469 good manners in use of, 210 history of, 466–69 informal English, 245, 469 Middle English, 466 nonstandard English, 245, 468–69 Old English, 466 pronunciation and spelling changes in, 467 Index

509

slang, 469 standard American English, 468–69 standard English, 245 word origins in, 467–68 Essential phrases and clauses, 300, 490 Ethnic dialects of English language, 468 Everywheres, anywheres, anyways, nowheres, somewheres, 246 Except, accept, 246, 359 Exclamation points abbreviations and, 292 as end marks, 4, 18–19, 290, 490 interjections and, 65 quotations and, 324 requests and commands and, 290 Exclamatory sentences definition of, 19, 491 punctuation of, 4, 19, 290, 305

F Fall, principal parts of, 179 Far, comparison of, 227 Feel, principal parts of, 179 Feel good, feel well, 249 Feminine pronouns, 165 Fewer, less, 249 Fight, principal parts of, 179 Final silent e, spelling rules for, 351–52 Find, principal parts of, 179 First-person pronouns, 30 Fly, principal parts of, 179 For, 62, 297 Forgive, principal parts of, 179 Formal English, 245, 469 Formally, formerly, 363 Fractions, hyphens and, 338 Freeze, principal parts of, 179 Frequently, comparison of, 227 Fused sentences, definition of, 491 Future perfect tense, 186, 187 Future tense, 186, 187

“Green Dragon Pond,” 326 Grow, principal parts of, 179, 493

H Had of, 254 Had ought, hadn’t ought, 249 Have, as helping verb, 50, 175 Have, principal parts of, 180 He, she, they, 251 Hear, here, 363 Hear, principal parts of, 180 Helping verbs definition of, 49 list of, 50 past participle and, 175 present participle and, 175 subject-verb agreement and, 148 Here’s, 160 Hide, principal parts of, 180 Himself, hisself, 214 Himself, themselves, 214, 251 Hisself, theirself, theirselves, 214, 251 Hit, principal parts of, 180 Hold, principal parts of, 180 Homonyms definition of, 358 words often confused, 358–69 Hope, principal parts of, 176 How come, 251 Hurt, principal parts of, 178 Hyphens in addresses, 268 with compound numbers, 338, 491 dividing words with, 338 fractions and, 338 with prefixes, 339, 491 with suffixes, 339 syllables and, 338 word division and, 338

I G Geographical names, capitalization of, 267–68 Gerunds, 421 Get, principal parts of, 179 Give, principal parts of, 179 Glossary, definition of, 245 Go, principal parts of, 178, 179 Good, comparison of, 227 Good, well, 228–29, 249, 491

510

Index

I pronoun, capitalization of, 266 ie and ei, spelling rule for, 348–49 Illegible, comparison of, 226 Imperative sentences, 492 definition of, 18, 414 punctuation of, 18–19 Indefinite articles, 35 Indefinite pronouns, 492 definition of, 32, 152 list of, 32

number and, 151, 152 possessive case, 332 singular and plural in numbers, 152–53 Independent clauses and or but with, 429 in compound sentences, 131–32, 133, 487 definition of, 114, 492 punctuation of, 294, 310 as sentences, 114, 425 Indirect objects as compound, 77 definition of, 76, 207, 492 diagramming and, 451 nouns as, 76–77 in objective case, 207 placement of, 207 prepositional phrases and, 77 pronouns as, 76 Indirect quotations, 322 Infinitive phrases definition of, 103, 492 diagramming of, 456–57 example of, 89 Infinitives as adjectives, 102 as adverbs, 102 as base form of verbs, 175 definition of, 102, 421, 492 diagramming of, 456–57 as nouns, 102 prepositional phrases distinguished from, 60, 91, 102 Informal English, 245, 469 –ing ending, 98, 414, 421 Inside of, 254 Inspect, principal parts of, 176 Instructions, using prepositional phrases in, 111 Intensive pronouns, 31 Interjections, 65, 66 definition of, 492 Interrogative pronouns, 32 Interrogative sentences, 19 definition of, 493 Interrupters, 299–304 “In the Night,” 266 Intransitive verbs action verbs and, 45 definition of, 52, 493 linking verbs as, 46 Introductory words, phrases, clauses, 305, 484 Inverted word order, 160 Irregular verbs definition of, 175, 493 list of, 493 list of principal parts of specific verbs, 178–82 Italics. See Underlining (italics). Items in a series commas and, 294–95, 484

semicolons and, 310, 499 It is I, 79 Its, it’s, 251, 332, 363, 493 It’s me, 79, 204

J Jealous, comparison of, 226 Joyfully, comparison of, 226

K Kind, sort, type, 251 Kind of, sort of, 252 Know, principal parts of, 180

L Lay, lie, 193, 493 Lay, principal parts of, 193 Lead, led, 363 Lead, principal parts of, 180 Learn, teach, 252 Least, less, in comparisons, 226–27 Leave, let, 252 Leave, principal parts of, 181 Lend, principal parts of, 178, 181 Less, fewer, 249 Let, leave, 252 Let, principal parts of, 178, 181 Letters (correspondence) capitalization in, 266 closing of, 307 punctuation of, 307, 312 Letters (grammar) plurals of, 337, 358 spelling and, 358 underlining (italics) and, 321, 503 Lie, lay, 193, 493 Lie, principal parts of, 193 Light, principal parts of, 181 Like, as, 252 Like, as if, as though, 252 Linking verbs action verbs used as, 229 definition of, 46, 494 direct object and, 74 list of, 46–47 predicate adjectives and, 229 predicate nominatives and, 80 Index

511

state of being and, 46 subject complements and, 79 Loose, lose, 364 Lose, loose, 364 Lose, principal parts of, 181 –ly ending, 55, 223 –ly or –ness, spelling rules for, 351

M Main verbs, 49–50 Make, principal parts of, 178, 181 Many, comparison of, 227 Masculine pronouns, 165 Meet, principal parts of, 181 Middle English, 466 Might of, must of, 249 Misplaced modifiers, 233, 234, 236, 494 Mnemonic devices, 255, 369 Modifiers adjective clauses as, 238 adjective phrases as, 92 adjectives as, 34–37, 223 adverb phrases as, 94–95 adverbs as, 223–24 clauses as, 224 comparative degree, 225–27 comparison of adjectives and adverbs, 224–27 compound number used as, 338 dangling modifiers, 233, 236 decreasing comparison of, 226–27 definition of, 223, 494 degrees of comparison of, 224–27 diagramming and, 449 double comparisons and, 230 double negatives and, 231 fractions used as, 338 irregular comparison, 227 misplaced modifiers, 233, 234, 494 one-word modifiers, 223–24, 433 participial phrases as, 236 phrases as, 224 placement of, 232–38 positive degree, 225–27 in prepositional phrases, 90 prepositional phrases as, 233–34 problems with, 228–30 regular comparison, 225–27 superlative degree, 225–27 More, most, 226 Much, comparison of, 227 Must of, might of, 249

512

Index

N Negative words, 231 –ness, –ly, spelling rules for, 351 Neuter pronouns, 165 Newspapers, 320, 328 Nominative case, 201, 202, 203–204, 482–483 Nonessential appositive phrases, 301 Nonessential phrases and clauses, 299, 494 Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses, 299 Nonstandard English, 245, 468–69 Nor, 297 antecedents joined by, 166 subjects joined by, 156 Not as adverb, 12, 55 contractions and, 333 Not, never, 12 Noun(s) abstract nouns, 28 capitalization of nouns used as adjectives, 37 case form, 201 collective nouns, 29, 158–59, 167 common nouns, 26 compound nouns, 25, 296, 358 concrete nouns, 28 definition of, 25, 494 as indirect objects, 76–77 infinitives used as, 102 irregular formation of plurals, 357 plural nouns, 331, 355–58 plural possessive case, 331 possessive case, 201 possessive form of, 330–31 proper nouns, 26 used as adjectives, 35, 37, 39 Nowheres, anyways, anywheres, everywheres, somewheres, 246 Number (grammar), definition of, 147, 494 Numbers (numerals) forming plurals of, 337, 358 hyphens with compound numbers, 338 underlining (italics) and, 321

O Objective case, 201, 202, 206–209, 483 Object of preposition, 59–60, 90, 207, 209 definition of, 495 Of, 254 Off of, 254 Often, comparison of, 227 Old English, 466

Or, 297 antecedents joined by, 166 sentence combining and, 423, 424 subjects joined by, 156 Ought to of, 249 Outside of, 254

P Parallelism, 421, 495 Parentheses overuse of, 340 uses of, 495 Parenthetical expressions definition of, 303 punctuation of, 303–304, 340, 341 Participial phrases as modifiers, 236 definition of, 100, 495 diagramming of, 456 placement of, 100, 236 punctuation of, 305 Participle(s) as adjectives, 98 definition of, 98, 495 diagramming of, 456 kinds of, 98 in verb phrases, 98 Parts of speech, 25–39, 45–67 adjectives, 34–37 adverbs, 54–57 conjunctions, 62–63 determining parts of speech, 39, 67 interjections, 65, 66 nouns, 25–29 prepositions, 58–61 pronouns, 30–32 verbs, 45–52 Passed, past, 364 Passive voice, 189, 236 definition of, 495 Past, passed, 364 Past participles definition of, 98 dual forms of some verbs, 181 of irregular verbs, 175, 178–82 of regular verbs, 175, 176 Past perfect tense, 186, 187 Past tense, 186, 187 of irregular verbs, 175, 178–82 as principal part of verbs, 175 of regular verbs, 175, 176 Pay, principal parts of, 181, 493 Peace, piece, 365

Periods abbreviations and, 291–92 at end of statement, 4, 290 quotations and, 324 requests and commands and, 290 Personal pronouns as adjectives, 202 case form of, 202 definition of, 30 plurals of, 30 Phrases. See also Adjective phrases; Adverb phrases; Prepositional phrases; Verbal phrases. adjective phrases, 92, 95 adverb phrases, 94–95 appositive phrases, 106, 302, 479 combining sentences with, 420–21 definition of, 89, 420, 496 diagramming and, 454–57 essential phrases, 300 in a series, 294 infinitive phrases, 103 introductory phrases, 305 as modifiers, 224 nonessential appositive phrases, 301 nonessential phrases, 299, 494 participial phrases, 100, 305 placement of, 232–38 prepositional phrases, 90–91, 233–34 punctuation of phrases in a series, 294 varying sentence beginnings with, 432 verbal phrases, 98–103, 504 verb phrases, 11–12, 98, 504 Piece, peace, 365 Plain, plane, 365 Plural, definition of, 147 Plurals of compound nouns, 358 irregular, 357 of letters, 337, 358 of nouns, 331, 355–58 of nouns ending in o preceded by consonant, 356–57 of nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, sh, 355 of nouns ending in y preceded by vowel, 356 of nouns ending in f or fe, 356 of numerals, 337, 358 possessive case and, 331 punctuation of, 358 of symbols, 337, 358 of words referred to as words, 337, 358 Poetry, capitalization in, 266 Positive degree of comparison, 225–27, 485 Possessive case, 201–202, 483 definition of, 330 formation of, 330–32 plurals nouns and, 331 Possessive pronouns Index

513

apostrophes and, 330, 332 contractions distinguished from, 332, 334 Powerful, comparison of, 226 Predicate(s) complete predicate, 10–11 definition of, 8, 496 placement of, 8–9 simple predicate, 10–11 Predicate adjectives definition of, 81, 496 diagramming and, 453 linking verbs and, 229 Predicate nominatives choosing correct form of pronoun and, 204 completing linking verbs, 80 compound predicate nominatives, 80 definition of, 79, 204, 496 diagramming and, 452 direct objects distinguished from, 80 nominative case pronouns and, 204 placement of, 80 pronouns as, 204 Prefixes definition of, 350, 497 hyphens with, 339, 491, 497 spelling and, 350–51 Preposition(s) adverbs distinguished from, 61 capitalization and, 279 definition of, 58, 497 for as, 62 list of, 58 Prepositional phrases, 209 as adjective phrases, 92, 95 as adjectives, 233 as adverb phrases, 94, 95 as adverbs, 233 definition of, 59, 90, 497 diagramming and, 454–55 direct object and, 74 example of, 89 indirect object and, 77 infinitives distinguished from, 60, 91, 102 as modifiers, 233–34 modifiers in, 90 placement of, 233–34 punctuation of, 305 subject-verb agreement and, 153 Present participles definition of, 98 helping verbs and, 175 of irregular verbs, 178–82 as principal part of verbs, 175 of regular verbs, 176 Present perfect tense, 186, 187 Present tense, 186, 187 Principal, principle, 365

514

Index

Principal parts of verbs base form, 175 definition of, 175 dictionary and, 178 irregular verbs, 178–82 past participle, 175 past tense, 175 present participle, 175 regular verbs, 176 Progressive form, 188 Pronoun-antecedent agreement. See Agreement (pronoun-antecedent). Pronouns as adjectives, 36, 39 antecedents and, 30, 216–17, 479 apostrophes and, 330, 332 appositives and, 106, 213 case form of, 201–209, 482–83 clear reference and, 216–17, 483 as compound object, 207 definition of, 30, 497 demonstrative pronouns, 31, 36 as direct object, 74 feminine pronouns, 165 gender and, 165 himself, hisself, 214 indefinite pronouns, 32 intensive pronouns, 31 interrogative pronouns, 32 masculine pronouns, 165 neuter pronouns, 165 nominative case, 201, 202, 203–204, 482–83 number and, 165–68 objective case, 201, 202, 206–209, 483 as object of prepositions, 209 personal pronouns, 30, 202 possessive case, 201, 202, 483 possessive pronouns, 330, 332 as predicate nominative, 204 problems with, 211–17 reflexive pronouns, 31, 214 relative pronouns, 32, 118 theirselves, themselves, 214 types of, 30–32 uses of, 201–14 who, whom, 211–12 Pronunciation, spelling and, 347 Proper adjectives capitalization of, 276–77 definition of, 37, 276 Proper nouns abbreviation of, 291 apostrophes and, 330 capitalization of, 266–74 definition of, 26, 266 used as adjectives, 37 Punctuation

of abbreviations, 291–92 apostrophes, 330–37 brackets, 341 clauses, 294, 297, 299–300, 305, 426 colons, 311–12 commas, 294–307 of contractions, 333–34 in conventional situations, 306–307 dashes, 341–42 dialogue, 326 end marks, 290–92, 490 exclamation points, 18–19, 290 hyphens, 338–39 of interjections, 65 of interrupters, 299–304 of introductory words, phrases, clauses, 305 of items in a series, 294–95 overuse of, 308 parentheses, 340 of parenthetical expressions, 340, 341 periods, 290–92 of phrases, 294, 299–300, 305 of possessive case, 330–32 question marks, 19, 290 quotation marks, 322–28 of salutation of any letter, 307, 312 semicolons, 310 of short written works, 327 of titles, 327–28 underlining (italics), 320–21 of written works, 327 Put, principal parts of, 178, 182

Q Question marks abbreviations and, 292 as end marks, 4, 19, 290 quotations and, 324 Questions, diagramming of, 444 Quiet, quite, 365 Quotation marks broken quotations and, 323 in dialogue, 326 direct quotations and, 322–324, 497 indirect quotation and, 322 other punctuation marks preceding, 498 single quotation marks, 327, 328 titles and, 498 for titles of short works, 327–28 Quotations broken quotations, 323 capitalization of, 266, 323 exclamation points and, 323, 324

question marks and, 323, 324 quotation within quotation, 327 several sentences and, 327

R Raise, principal parts of, 192 Raise, rise, 191–92, 498 Read, principal parts of, 182 Real, 254 Reflexive pronouns, 31, 214 Regional dialects of English language, 468 Regular verbs, 175, 176 definition of, 498 list of, 498 Relative pronouns adjective clauses and, 32, 135, 238 definition of, 32, 118 list of, 32, 118 Request, punctuation of, 290 Restrictive phrases and clauses, 300 Ride, principal parts of, 182 Ring, principal parts of, 182 Rise, principal parts of, 192 Rise, raise, 191–92, 498 Root words, 498 Run, principal parts of, 182 Run-on sentences, 416–17 definition of, 416, 499 punctuation and, 416 revision of, 417

S Salutation of business letter, 312 of personal letter, 307 punctuation of, 307, 312 Say, principal parts of, 182 School subjects, capitalization of, 277 Second-person pronouns, 30 –sede, –cede, –ceed, spelling rule for, 350 See conjugation of, 187–88 principal parts of, 182 Seek, principal parts of, 182 Sell, principal parts of, 182 Semicolons in compound sentences, 132, 499 with conjunctive adverbs, 499 definition of, 310 independent clauses and, 294, 310 Index

515

items in a series and, 310, 499 overuse of, 310 run-on sentences and, 417 Send, principal parts of, 182 Sentence(s) abbreviation at end of, 292 basic parts of, 5 combining sentences, 418–26 complete sentences, 414–17 complex sentences, 135, 137, 425, 435, 486 compound-complex sentences, 137, 435, 486–87 compound sentences, 131–32, 133, 137, 297, 424, 435, 487 declarative sentences, 18, 489 definition of, 4, 499 distinguishing between simple and compound, 133, 297 end marks and, 490 exclamatory sentences, 19, 491 fused sentences, 491 grammar checks and, 114 imperative sentences, 18–19, 414, 492 independent clauses used as, 114 interrogative sentences, 19, 493 inverted word order in, 160 kinds of, 130–37 punctuation of, 4, 18–19, 290 revision of, 116 run-on sentences, 416–17, 499 sentence fragments, 113, 414–15, 499 simple sentences, 4, 130, 133, 137, 297, 435, 500 stringy sentences, 428–29, 500 test-taking strategies and, 470–75 using transitions in, 437–38 wordy sentences, 430 Sentence diagrams, 444–62 Sentence fragments, 4, 113, 414–15, 499 Sentence structure complex sentences, 135, 435 compound-complex sentences, 137, 435 compound sentences, 131–32, 133, 435 diagramming and, 460–62 simple sentences, 130, 133, 435 test-taking strategies and, 473–74 varying sentence structure, 434–35 Sentence style combining sentences, 418–26 improvement of, 428–30 sentence length, 431–33 stringy sentence revision, 428–29 test-taking strategies and, 474–75 using transitions, 437–38 varying sentence beginnings, 432–33 wordy sentence revision, 430 Set, principal parts of, 190 Set, sit, 190, 500 Shall, will, 187

516

Index

Sharp, comparison of, 227 She, he, they, 251 Shone, shown, 365 Should of, 249 Shrink, principal parts of, 182 Simple, comparison of, 226 Simple predicate, 10–11 Simple sentences compound sentences distinguished from, 133, 297 definition of, 130, 435, 500 diagramming of, 460 Simple subjects, definition of, 6–7 Sing, principal parts of, 178, 182 Single quotation marks, 327, 328 Singular, definition of, 147 Sink, principal parts of, 182 Sit, principal parts of, 190 Sit, set, 190, 500 Slang, 469 Slip, principal parts of, 176 Slow, comparison of, 225 So, 297 Some, somewhat, 255 Somewheres, anyways, anywheres, everywheres, nowheres, 246 Soon, comparison of, 225 Sort, kind, type, 251 Sort of, kind of, 252 Speak, principal parts of, 182 Speech, parts of, 25–39, 45–67 Spelling, 347–75 –cede, –ceed, –sede, 350 computer use and, 245, 267, 348 of contractions, 333 dictionary use and, 347 final silent e, 351–52 good habits for, 347–48 homonyms, 358–69 ie and ei, 348–49 notebook used for, 348 one-syllable words, 353 pluralized compound nouns, 358 plurals of nouns, 355–58 plurals of numerals, letters, symbols, and words, 358 prefixes, 350, 351 proofreading for, 348 rules for, 348–58 suffixes, 350, 351–53 syllables and, 347 word list, 374–75 words often confused (homonyms), 358–69 Spend, principal parts of, 182 Spread, principal parts of, 493 Stand, principal parts of, 182 Standard American English, 468–69 Standard English, 245

State of being, linking verbs and, 46 Statements, punctuation of, 290 Stationary, stationery, 367 Steal, principal parts of, 182 Straight, comparison of, 225 Stringy sentences definition of, 428, 500 revision of, 428–29 Style. See Sentence style. Subject(s) complete subjects, 6–7 compound subjects, 13, 133, 155–56 definition of, 5, 500 double subjects, 251, 490 identification of, 13 in nominative case, 202, 203 placement of, 5 sentence diagramming and, 444–47 simple subject, 6–7 understood subject, 19, 445 Subject complements definition of, 79, 500 diagramming and, 452–53 linking verbs and, 79 predicate adjectives, 81 predicate nominatives, 79–80 Subject-verb agreement. See Agreement (subject-verb). Subordinate clauses adjective clauses, 117–18, 135 adverb clauses, 120–21, 135 combining sentences and, 425–26 definition of, 114, 501 diagramming of, 458–59 introductory words of, 114 relative pronouns and, 118 subordinating conjunctions and, 121 varying sentence beginnings with, 433 and words of time or place, 426 Subordinating conjunctions, 63 list of, 121, 459 placement of, 121 Subordination, definition of, 425, 501 Suffixes definition of, 350, 501 final consonant and, 353 hyphens with, 339 spelling changes of words ending in y, 351, 352 spelling of, 350–53 Superlative degree of comparison, 225–27, 485 Swiftly, comparison of, 226 Swim, principal parts of, 182 Swing, principal parts of, 182 Syllables, 338, 501 spelling and, 347 Symbols forming plurals of, 337, 358 underlining (italics) and, 503

T Take, bring, 248 Take, principal parts of, 182 Talk, principal parts of, 175 Teach, learn, 252 Teach, principal parts of, 182 Tear, principal parts of, 182 Tell, principal parts of, 182 Tense. See also Verb(s). consistency of, 188 definition of, 186, 501–502 list of, 186, 187 progressive form, 188 Test-taking strategies, 470–75 general strategies, 470–71 strategies for answering grammar, usage, and mechanics questions, 471–75 Than, then, 255, 367 That, 118 essential clauses and, 300 That, who, which, 258, 426 That’s her, 204 That there, this here, 256 That was he, 79 That, which, as relative pronouns, 118 The capitalization of, 279, 280, 321 as definite article, 35 prepositional phrases and, 90 underlining (italics) and, 321 Their, there, they’re, 255, 367, 502–503 Theirself, theirselves, hisself, 214, 251 Them, 255 Themselves, himself, 214, 251 Themselves, theirselves, 214 Then, than, 255, 367 There’s, 160 They, she, he, 251 They’re, their, there, 255, 367, 502–503 Think, principal parts of, 182 Third-person pronouns, 30 This here, that there, 256 This kind, sort, type, 251 Threw, through, 367 Throw, principal parts of, 182 Time punctuating expressions of, 291, 312 tense of verbs and, 175 Titles agreement of verbs with, 162, 168 of books, magazines, newspapers, poems, short stories, 279–80, 320 capitalization of, 278–80 Index

517

of movies, television programs, works of art, musical compositions, 280, 320 official titles in published works, 279–80 of persons, 278–79 punctuation with subtitles, 312 of short works with quotation marks, 327 underlining (italics) and, 320, 503 To, too, two, 368 Transitional words and phrases, 437–38 list of, 438 Transitions, 503 Transitive verbs, 45, 52 definition of, 503 Try and, 256 Type, kind, sort, 251

U Underlining (italics) artworks and, 320 denoted by underlining, 320 films and, 320 foreign words and, 503 musical works and, 320 publications and, 320, 328 television programs and, 320 titles and, 320, 503 the, 321 transportation vehicles, 321 word-processing software and, 320 words, letters, and numerals, 321, 503 in written dialogue, 321 Unless, without, 259 Understood subject, 19, 445 Units of measure, abbreviations for, 292 Use to, used to, 258

V Verb(s) action verbs, 45, 47, 229 active voice, 189 adverbs as defining, 54 base form of, 175, 176, 178–82 compound verbs, 15, 133 conjugation of, 186–88 definition of, 45, 503 direct objects and, 74 helping verbs, 49–50 intransitive verbs, 45, 46, 52, 493 irregular verbs, 175, 178–82, 493 lie, lay, 193

518

Index

linking verbs, 46–47, 229, 494 main verbs, 49–50 passive voice, 189 principal parts of, 175–82 regular verbs, 175, 176, 498 rise, raise, 191–92 sentence diagramming and, 444–47 as simple predicate, 10–11 sit, set, 190 tenses of, 186–88, 501–502 transitive verbs, 45, 52, 503 Verbal phrases, 98–103, 456–57 definition of, 504 Verbals definition of, 98, 503 diagramming of, 456–57 Verb phrases, 11–12 definition of, 11, 49, 504 example of, 89 interrupted by another part of speech, 50 participles and, 98 subject-verb agreement and, 148 Very, 55 Vocabulary word origins, 467–68 wordiness, 504 Voice active voice, 189, 236, 476 passive voice, 189, 236, 495 verbs and, 504

W Waist, waste, 368 Way, ways, 258 Weak, week, 368 Wear, principal parts of, 182 Weather, whether, 369 Well, comparison of, 227 Well, good, 228–229, 249, 491 When, where, 258 Where, 258 Where’s, 160 Which, that, as relative pronouns, 118 Which, who, that, 258, 426 Who, which, that, 258, 426 Who, whom, 211–12, 504 Who’s, whose, 258–59, 369 Will, shall, 187 Win, principal parts of, 182 Without, unless, 259 Wordiness, definition of, 504 Word(s). See also English language. borrowed words, 467–68 commonly confused (homonyms), 358–69

dividing words using hyphens, 338 root words, 498 in a series, 294 Words referred to as words forming plural of, 337, 358 underlining (italics) of, 321, 503 Wordy sentences, definition of, 430 Would of, 249 Write, principal parts of, 182, 502 Writing application capitalization in letter writing, 287 clear pronoun reference, 43 comparisons in a letter, 243 complete sentences, 23 correct spelling in written review, 373 formal English in speeches, 263 prepositional phrases, 71, 111 prepositional phrases in directions, 71 prepositional phrases in a note, 111 pronouns in letters, 221 punctuation in announcements, 317

quotations in reports, 345 sentence structures in letter writing, 144–45 subject complements and riddles, 87 subject-verb agreement, 172–73 subordinate clauses in manuals, 127 verb forms/tenses, 199

Y Yet, 297 You, as understood subject, 19 Your, you’re, 259, 369

Z ZIP Codes, 268, 292, 307

Index

519

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For permission to reprint copyrighted material, grateful acknowledgment is made to the following sources: HarperCollins Publishers: From “Green Dragon Pond” from The Spring of Butterflies, translated by He Liyi. Copyright ©1986 by He Liyi.

University of California Press: From “In the Night” from Singing for Power: The Song Magic of the Papago Indians of Southern Arizona by Ruth Murray Underhill. Copyright ©1938, 1966 by Ruth Murray Underhill.

PHOTO CREDITS Abbreviations used: (tl)top left, (tc)top center, (tr)top right, (l)left, (lc)left center, (c)center, (rc)right center, (r)right, (bl)bottom left, (bc)bottom center, (br)bottom right. TABLE OF CONTENTS: Page v, Courtesy of Terry Dewald/Jerry

Jacka Photography; vi, Tom Prettyman/Photo Edit; viii, John Elk, III/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; ix, Image Copyright ©1998 Photodisc, Inc.; xi, James Sugar/Black Star; xii, SuperStock; xv, Corbis Images (formerly Digital Stock Corp.); xvii (tl), Image Club Graphics ©1998 Adobe Systems; xviii, Gambell/ SuperStock; xix, Ron Sefton/Bruce Coleman, Inc. CHAPTER 1: Page 9, UPI/Bettmann/CORBIS; 12 (lc), Paul

Chesley/Tony Stone Images; 12 (bl), John Elk, III/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 14 (bc), Tony Arruza/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 14 (bl), John Elk, III/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 17, Corbis Images. CHAPTER 2: Page 29, Chris Eden/Francine Seders Gallery; 39,

56, Tony Kirves/Southern Exposure; 60, Culver Pictures, Inc.; 67, Fred Bruemmer/Peter Arnold, Inc. CHAPTER 4: Page 75, AllSport USA/Vandystadt Agence

de Presse; 76, Nawrocki Stock Photo; 83, Image Copyright ©1998 Photodisc, Inc.; 84 (tl), Bob Daemmrich/Tony Stone Worldwide, Ltd.; 84 (lc), Jose Carrillo/Photo Edit; 84 (bl), Tom Prettyman/Photo Edit. CHAPTER 5: Page 91, D.P. Hershkowitz/Bruce Coleman, Inc.;

93, Andrew Bernstein/Allsport; 99, Corbis Images; 101 (c), Fielder Kownslar/IBM Corporation; 101 (rc), The Granger Collection, New York; 104, Image Copyright ©1998 Photodisc, Inc.; 105, Bill Aron/PhotoEdit. CHAPTER 6: Page 115, Michael Ochs Archives/Venice, CA;

116, Michael Ochs Archives/Venice, CA. CHAPTER 7: Page 134, FPG International; 135, Corbis-Bettmann;

136, UPI/Bettmann/CORBIS; 139, Culver Pictures, Inc. CHAPTER 8: Page 149 (br), Paul S. Conklin/Nawrocki Stock

Photo; 149 (c), David R. Frazier Photolibrary; 150 (lc), Gerhard Gacheldle/HRW Photo; 150 (tl), Image Club Graphics

Pictures, Inc. CHAPTER 11: Page 228 (rc, lc), Cameramann International; 235, The Granger Collection, New York; 240, H. Armstrong Roberts. CHAPTER 12: Page 247, Paul Chesley/Tony Stone Images; 250, John Langford/HRW Photo; 253, HRW Photo Research Library; 257, Sylvain Grandadam/Tony Stone Images. CHAPTER 13: Page 269, James Sugar/Black Star; 270, Richard Pasley/Viesti Collection; 276 (lc), Culver Pictures, Inc.; 276 (tl), The Granger Collection, New York; 276 (bl), Archive Photos. CHAPTER 14: Page 290, Brian Lanker; 298, Courtesy of Terry Dewald/Jerry Jacka Photography; 301, The Granger Collection, New York; 304, Image Copyright ©2001 PhotoDisc, Inc.; 309, Corbis Images (formerly Digital Stock Corp.); 314, Sanctuary for Animals, Westtown, New York. CHAPTER 15: Page 329, SuperStock; 331, The Granger Collection, New York; 336, James Montgomery/Bruce Coleman, Inc. CHAPTER 16: Page 354 (all), Lightwave; 366, Scala/Art Resource, NY; 370, Image Copyright ©1998 Photodisc, Inc. CHAPTER 17: Page 379, Image Copyright ©1998 Photodisc, Inc.; 383, John Kelly/HRW Photo; 386, Corbis Images; 388, Russel Dian/HRW Photo; 395, Tim Defrisco/Allsport; 400, Image Copyright ©2001 PhotoDisc, Inc. CHAPTER 18: Page 415, Kim Taylor/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 417, NASA/Nawrocki Stock Photo; 421, SuperStock; 422, Gambell/ SuperStock; 425, SuperStock; 432, Ron Sefton/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 435, Reuters/Mark Cardwell/Archive Photos; 418, Image Copyright ©2001 Photodisc, Inc.; 428, Image Copyright ©2001 Photodisc, Inc.

ILLUSTRATION CREDITS All work, unless otherwise noted, contributed by Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Page 20, Nancy Tucker; 97, Ortelius Design; 131, Ortelius

520

Design; 184, Larry McEntire; 186, Leslie Kell; 259, Uhl Studios, Inc.; 276, Ortelius Design; 277, Brian Battles; 283, Ortelius Design; 293, Uhl Studios, Inc.; 335, Leslie Kell; 350, Ortelius Design.

Acknowledgments/Photo Credits/Illustration Credits